Consider the very first current source invented by Volta and bearing the name of Galvani.

The source of current in any batteries can only be a redox reaction. Actually, these are two reactions: an atom is oxidized when it loses an electron. The acquisition of an electron is called recovery. That is, the redox reaction proceeds at two points: where from and where the electrons flow.

Two metals (electrodes) are immersed in an aqueous solution of their sulfuric acid salts. The metal of one electrode is oxidized and the other is reduced. The reason for the reaction is that the elements of one electrode attract electrons more strongly than the elements of the other. In a pair of metal electrodes Zn - Cu, the copper ion (not a neutral compound) has a greater ability to attract electrons, therefore, when there is an opportunity, the electron passes to a stronger host, and the zinc ion is snatched out by the acid solution into the electrolyte (some ion-conducting substance). The transfer of electrons is carried out along a conductor through an external electrical network. In parallel with the movement of a negative charge in the opposite direction, positively charged ions (anions) move through the electrolyte (see video)

In all CHITs preceding Lithium-ion, the electrolyte is an active participant in the ongoing reactions
see the principle of operation of a lead battery

Galvani's error

The electrolyte is also a conductor of current, only of the second kind, in which the movement of the charge is carried out by ions. The human body is just such a conductor, and the muscles contract due to the movement of anions and cations.
So L. Galvani accidentally connected two electrodes through a natural electrolyte - a dissected frog.

HIT Characteristics

Capacity - the number of electrons (electronic charge) that can be passed through the connected device until the battery is completely discharged [Q] or
The capacity of the entire battery is formed by the capacities of the cathode and anode: how many electrons the anode is able to give away and how many electrons the cathode is able to accept. Naturally, the smaller of the two capacities will be limiting.

Voltage - potential difference. energy characteristic, showing what energy a unit charge releases when moving from an anode to a cathode.

Energy is the work that can be done on a given HIT until it is completely discharged. [J] or
Power - the rate of energy output or work per unit of time
Durability or Coulomb efficiency- what percentage of the capacity is irretrievably lost during the charge-discharge cycle.

All characteristics are predicted theoretically, however, due to many factors that are difficult to take into account, most of the characteristics are refined experimentally. So they can all be predicted for the ideal case based on chemistry, but macrostructure has a huge impact on both capacity and power and durability.

So durability and capacity to a large extent depend on both the charge / discharge rate and the macrostructure of the electrode.
Therefore, the battery is characterized not by one parameter, but by a whole set for different modes. For example, battery voltage (unit charge transfer energy**) can be estimated as a first approximation (at the materials perspective stage) from the values ionization energies atoms of active substances during oxidation and reduction. But the real value is the difference in chem. potentials, for the measurement of which, as well as for taking charge / discharge curves, a test cell is assembled with a test electrode and a reference one.

For electrolytes based aqueous solutions using a standard hydrogen electrode. For Lithium-Ion - metallic lithium.

*Ionization energy is the energy that must be imparted to an electron in order to break the bond between it and the atom. That is, taken with the opposite sign, represents the bond energy, and the system always seeks to minimize the bond energy
** Single transfer energy - transfer energy of one elementary charge 1.6e-19[Q]*1[V]=1.6e-19[J] or 1eV(electronvolt)

Li-ion batteries

<В 80-х годах литий был предложен, как перспективный материал для анода, но ввиду высокой реактивности, и неконтролируемого преобрзования анода цикл за циклом, например, приводящего к росту литиевых ”веток”, достигающих напрямую катода, что приводило к короткому замыканию во вторичных батареях решили отказаться от использования металического лития в пользу соединений лишь вмещающих ионы лития. Свойства вмещать в себя литий у графита уже были описаны. И в 1991 годы Sony выпустила литиевые батарейки с графитовым анодом под ныне общеупотребимым названием Li-ion.
As already noted, in lithium-ion batteries, the electrolyte does not directly participate in the reaction. Where do the two main reactions take place: oxidation and reduction, and how is the balance of charge equalized?
Directly, these reactions occur between lithium in the anode and the metal atom in the cathode structure. As noted above, the appearance of lithium-ion batteries is not just the discovery of new connections for electrodes, it is the discovery of a new principle of CIT operation:
An electron weakly bound to the anode escapes along the outer conductor to the cathode.
In the cathode, the electron falls into the orbit of the metal, compensating for the 4th electron practically taken away from it by oxygen. Now the metal electron finally joins the oxygen, and the resulting electric field draws the lithium ion into the gap between the oxygen layers. Thus, the huge energy of lithium-ion batteries is achieved by not dealing with the restoration of external 1,2 electrons, but with the restoration of more “deep” ones. For example, for cobolt, the 4th electron.
Lithium ions are retained in the cathode due to a weak, about 10kJ/mol, interaction (van der Waals) with the electron clouds of oxygen atoms surrounding them (red)

Li is the third element in , has a low atomic weight, and small size. Due to the fact that lithium starts and, moreover, only the second row, the size of the neutral atom is quite large, while the size of the ion is very small, smaller than the sizes of helium and hydrogen atoms, which makes it practically indispensable in the LIB scheme. another consequence of the above: the outer electron (2s1) has a negligible bond with the nucleus and can easily be lost (this is expressed in the fact that Lithium has the lowest potential relative to the hydrogen electrode P=-3.04V).

Main components of the LIB

Electrolyte

Unlike traditional batteries, the electrolyte together with the separator does not directly participate in the reaction, but only provides the transport of lithium ions and does not allow the transport of electrons.
Electrolyte requirements:
- good ionic conductivity
- low electronic
- low cost
- light weight
- non-toxicity
- ABILITY TO WORK IN THE SET VOLTAGE AND TEMPERATURE RANGE
- prevent structural changes in the electrodes (prevent the decrease in capacitance)
In this review, I will allow you to bypass the topic of electrolytes, which is technically complex, but not so important for our topic. LiFP 6 solution is mainly used as electrolyte
Although it is believed that an electrolyte with a separator is an absolute insulator, in reality this is not so:
In Lithium ion cells, there is a self-discharge phenomenon. those. the lithium ion with electrons reach the cathode through the electrolyte. Therefore, it is necessary to keep the battery partially charged in case of long-term storage.
With long interruptions in operation, the phenomenon of aging also occurs, when separate groups are separated from a uniformly saturated lithium ion, violating the uniformity of concentration and thereby reducing the overall capacity. Therefore, when buying a battery, you must check the release date

Anodes

Anodes are electrodes that have a weak bond, both with the “guest” lithium ion and with the corresponding electron. There is currently a boom in the development of a variety of anode solutions for Lithium-ion batteries.
requirements for anodes

• High electronic and ionic conductivity (Fast lithium incorporation / extraction process)
• Low voltage with test electrode (Li)
• Large specific capacity
• High stability of the anode structure during the insertion and extraction of lithium, which is responsible for the Coulomb

Improvement methods:

• Change the macrostructure of the structure of the anode substance
• Reduce the porosity of the substance
• Select new material.
• Use mixed materials
• Improve the properties of the phase boundary with the electrolyte.

In general, LIB anodes can be divided into 3 groups according to the way lithium is placed in its structure:

Anodes are hosts. Graphite

Almost everyone remembers from high school that carbon exists in solid form in two basic structures - graphite and diamond. The difference in the properties of these two materials is striking: one is transparent, the other is not. One insulator is another conductor, one cuts glass, the other is rubbed against paper. The reason is the different nature of interatomic interactions.
Diamond is a crystal structure where interatomic bonds are formed due to sp3 hybridization, that is, all bonds are the same - all three 4 electrons form σ-bonds with another atom.
Graphite is formed by sp2 hybridization, which dictates a layered structure, and weak bonding between layers. The presence of a “floating” covalent π-bond makes graphite carbon an excellent conductor
Graphite is the first and today the main anode material, which has many advantages.
High electronic conductivity
High ionic conductivity
Small volumetric deformations during the introduction of lithium atoms
Low cost
The first graphite as an anode material was proposed back in 1982 by S.Basu and introduced into a lithium ion cell in 1985 by A. Yoshino
At first, graphite was used in the electrode in its natural form and its capacity reached only 200 mAh/g. The main resource for increasing the capacity was to improve the quality of graphite (improvement of the structure and purification from impurities). The fact is that the properties of graphite vary significantly depending on its macrostructure, and the presence of many anisotropic grains in the structure, oriented differently, significantly worsen the diffusion properties of the substance. Engineers tried to increase the degree of graphitization, but its increase led to the decomposition of the electrolyte. The first solution was to use crushed low-graphitized carbon mixed with electrolyte, which increased the anode capacity to 280mAh/g (the technology is still widely used). This was overcome in 1998 by introducing special additives into the electrolyte, which create a protective layer on the first cycle (hereinafter referred to as SEI solid electrolyte interface) that prevents further decomposition of the electrolyte and allows the use of artificial graphite 320 mAh / g. By now, the capacity of the graphite anode has reached 360 mAh/g, and the capacity of the whole electrode is 345mAh/g and 476 Ah/l

Reaction: Li 1-x C 6 + Li x ↔ LiC 6

The structure of graphite is capable of accepting a maximum of 1 Li atom per 6 C, therefore the maximum achievable capacity is 372 mAh / g (this is not so much a theoretical figure as a commonly used figure, since here is the rarest case when something real exceeds the theoretical one, because in practice lithium ions can be placed not only inside the cells, but also on the fractures of graphite grains)
Since 1991 graphite electrode has undergone many changes, and in some characteristics, it seems as an independent material, has reached its ceiling. The main field for improvement is to increase the power, i.e. Battery discharge/charge rates. The task of increasing the power is simultaneously the task of increasing the durability, since the fast discharging/charging of the anode leads to the destruction of the graphite structure by lithium ions “stretched” through it. In addition to the standard techniques for increasing power, which usually come down to increasing the surface/volume ratio, it is necessary to note the study of the diffusion properties of a graphite single crystal in different directions of the crystal lattice, which shows that the diffusion rate of lithium can differ by 10 orders of magnitude.

K.S. Novoselov and A.K. Geim - 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates The pioneers of independent use of graphene
Bell Laboratories U.S. Patent 4,423,125
Asahi Chemical Ind. Japan Patent 1989293
Ube Industries Ltd. US Patent 6,033,809
Masaki Yoshio, Akiya Kozawa, and Ralph J. Brodd. Lithium-Ion Batteries Science and Technologies Springer 2009.
Lithium Diffusion in Graphitic Carbon Kristin Persson at.al. Phys. Chem. Letters 2010/Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 2010
Structural and electronic properties of lithium intercalated graphite LiC6, K. R. Kganyago, P. E. Ngoep Phis. Review 2003.
Active material for negative electrode used in lithium-ion battery and method of manufacturing same. Samsung Display Devices Co., Ltd. (KR) 09/923.908 2003
Effect of electrode density on cycle performance and irreversible capacity loss for natural graphite anode in lithium ion batteries. Joongpyo Shim and Kathryn A. Striebel

Anodes Tin and Co. Alloys

To date, one of the most promising are anodes from the elements of the 14th group of the periodic table. Even 30 years ago, the ability of tin (Sn) to form alloys (interstitial solutions) with lithium was well studied. It wasn't until 1995 that Fuji announced a tin-based anode material (see e.g.)
It was logical to expect that the lighter elements of the same group would have the same properties, and indeed Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) show an identical lithium acceptance pattern.
Li 22 Sn 5 , Li 22 Ge 5 , Li 15 Si 4

Lix+Sn(Si,Ge)<-->Li x Sn(Si,Ge) (x<=4.4)
The main and general difficulty in the use of this group of materials is the huge, from 357% to 400%, volumetric deformations upon saturation with lithium (during charging), leading to large losses in capacitance due to the loss of contact with the current collector by part of the anode material.

Perhaps the most elaborate element of this group is tin:
being the heaviest, it gives heavier solutions: the maximum theoretical capacity of such an anode is 960 mAh/g, but compact (7000 Ah/l -1960Ah/l* ) nevertheless surpasses traditional carbon anodes by 3 and 8 (2.7* ) times, respectively.
The most promising are silicon-based anodes, which theoretically (4200 mAh/g ~3590mAh/g) are more than 10 times lighter and 11 (3.14*) times more compact (9340 Ah/l ~2440 Ah/l*) than graphite anodes.
Si does not have sufficient electronic and ionic conductivity, which forces us to look for additional means to increase the anode power.
Ge , germanium is not mentioned as often as Sn and Si, but being intermediate, it has a large (1600 mAh / g ~ 2200 * Ah / l ) capacity and 400 times higher ionic conductivity than Si, which can outweigh its high the cost of creating high-power electrical engineering

Along with large volumetric deformations, there is another problem:
loss of capacity in the first cycle due to the irreversible reaction of lithium with oxides

SnOx +x2Li + -->xLi 2 O+Sn
xLi 2 O+Sn+yLi +<-->xLi 2 O+Li y Sn

Which are the greater, the greater the contact of the electrode with air (the greater the surface area, i.e. the finer the structure)
Many schemes have been developed that allow, to one degree or another, to use the great potential of these compounds, smoothing out the disadvantages. However, as well as advantages:
All these materials are currently used in anodes combined with graphite, increasing their characteristics by 20-30%.

* values ​​are marked, corrected by the author, since common figures do not take into account a significant increase in volume and operate with the value of the density of the active substance (before saturation with lithium), and therefore do not reflect the real state of affairs at all

Jumas, Jean-Claude, Lippens, Pierre-Emmanuel, Olivier-Fourcade, Josette, Robert, Florent Willmann, Patrick 2008
US Patent Application 20080003502.
Chemistry and Structure of Sony's Nexelion
Li-ion Electrode Materials
J. Wolfenstine, J. L. Allen,
J. Read, and D. Foster
Army Research Laboratory 2006.

Electrodes for Li-Ion Batteries-A New Way to Look at an Old Problem
Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 155 ͑2͒ A158-A163 ͑2008͒.

Existing developments

All existing solutions to the problem of large anode deformations proceed from a single consideration: during expansion, the cause of mechanical stresses is the monolithic nature of the system: to break the monolithic electrode into many possible smaller structures, allowing them to expand independently of each other.
The first, most obvious, method is a simple grinding of a substance using some kind of holder that prevents particles from combining into larger ones, as well as saturation of the resulting mixture with electron-conducting agents. A similar solution could be traced in the evolution of graphite electrodes. This method made it possible to achieve some progress in increasing the capacity of the anodes, but nevertheless, until the full disclosure of the potential of the materials under consideration, by increasing the capacity (both volume and mass) of the anode by ~ 10-30% (400 -550 mAh / g) at low power
A relatively early method of introducing nanosized tin particles (by electrolysis) onto the surface of graphite spheres,
An ingenious and simple approach to the problem made it possible to create an efficient battery using a common industrial powder 1668 Ah/l
The next step was the transition from microparticles to nanoparticles: ultra-modern batteries and their prototypes consider and form the structures of matter on a nanometer scale, which made it possible to increase the capacity to 500 -600 mAh / g (~ 600 Ah / l *) with acceptable durability

One of the many promising types of nanostructures in electrodes is the so-called. shell-core configuration, where the core is a ball of small diameter from the working substance, and the shell serves as a “membrane” that prevents particles from fracturing and provides electronic communication with the environment. The use of copper as a shell for tin nanoparticles showed impressive results, showing high capacity (800 mAh/g - 540 mAh/g *) over many cycles, as well as at high charge / discharge currents. In comparison with the carbon shell (600 mAh/g ) it is similar for Si-C.

As noted, to reduce the detrimental effects of a sharp expansion of the working substance requires the provision of space for expansion.
In the past year, researchers have made impressive progress in creating workable nanostructures: nanorods
Jaephil Cho achieves 2800 mAh/g low power at 100 cycles and 2600 → 2400 at higher power using porous silicone structure
as well as stable Si nanofibers coated with a 40nm graphite film, demonstrating 3400 → 2750 mAh/g (act. in-va) after 200 cycles.
Yan Yao et al. propose using Si in the form of hollow spheres, achieving amazing durability: an initial capacity of 2725 mah/g (and only 336 Ah/l (*)) with a drop in capacity after 700 cycles of less than 50%

In September 2011, scientists from the Berkley Lab announced the creation of a stable electron-conducting gel,
which could revolutionize the use of silicon materials. The significance of this invention can hardly be overestimated: the new gel can serve as a holder and conductor at the same time, preventing nanoparticles from splicing and contact loss. Allows the use of cheap industrial powders as an active material and, according to the creators, is comparable in price to traditional holders. An electrode made from industrial materials (Si nanopowder) gives stable 1360 mAh/g and very high 2100 Ah/l (*)

*- estimate of the real capacity calculated by the author (see appendix)
M.S. Foster, C.E. Crouthamel, S.E. Wood, J. Phys. Chem., 1966
Jumas, Jean-Claude, Lippens, Pierre-Emmanuel, Olivier-Fourcade, Josette, Robert, Florent Willmann, Patrick 2008 US Patent Application 20080003502.
Chemistry and Structure of Sony's Nexelion Li-ion Electrode Materials J. Wolfenstine, J. L. Allen, J. Read, and D. Foster Army Research Laboratory 2006.
High Capacity Li-Ion Battery Anodes Using Ge Nanowires
Ball milling Graphite/Tin composite anode materials in liquide medium. Ke Wang 2007.
Electroless-plated tin compounds on carbonaceous mixture as anode for lithium-ion battery Journal of Power Sources 2009.
the Impact of Carbone-Shell on Sn-C composite anode for Lithium-ion Batteries. Kiano Ren et al. Ionics 2010.
Novel Core-Shell Sn-Cu Anodes For Li Rech. Batteries prepared by redox-transmetallation react. advanced materials. 2010
core double-shell [email protected]@C nanocomposites as anode materials for Li-ion batteries Liwei Su et al. ChemCom 2010.
Polymers with Tailored Electronic Structure for High Capacity Lithium Battery Electrodes Gao Liu et al. Adv. mater. 2011, 23, 4679–4683
Interconnected Silicon Hollow Nanospheres for Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes with Long Cycle Life. Yan Yao et al. Nano Letters 2011.
Porous Si anode materials for lithium rechargeable batteries, Jaephil Cho. J. Mater. Chem., 2010, 20, 4009–4014
Electrodes for Li-Ion Batteries-A New Way to Look at an Old Problem Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 155 ͑2͒ A158-A163 ͑2008͒.
ACCUMULATEURS FIXES, US Patent 8062556 2006

Application

Special cases of electrode structures:

Estimation of the real capacity of copper-coated tin nanoparticles [email protected]

From the article, the volume ratio of particles is 1 to 3m




0.52 is the powder packing ratio. Accordingly, the rest of the volume behind the holder is 0.48

Nanospheres. Packing ratio.
the low volumetric capacity given for nanospheres is due to the fact that the spheres are hollow inside, and therefore the packing ratio of the active material is very low

way even it will be 0.1 , for comparison for a simple powder - 0.5...07

Exchange reaction anodes. metal oxides.

The promising group undoubtedly also includes metal oxides, such as Fe 2 O 3 . Having a high theoretical capacitance, these materials also require solutions to increase the discreteness of the active substance of the electrode. In this context, such an important nanostructure as a nanofiber will receive due attention here.
Oxides show a third way to include and exclude lithium in the electrode structure. If in graphite lithium is located mainly between graphene layers, in solutions with silicon, it is introduced into its crystal lattice, then here rather “oxygen exchange” occurs between the “main” metal of the electrode and the guest - Lithium. An array of lithium oxide is formed in the electrode, and the base metal is impregnated into nanoparticles inside the matrix (see, for example, the reaction with molybdenum oxide in the figure MoO 3 +6Li + +6e -<-->3Li 2 O+Mo)
This nature of the interaction implies the need for easy movement of metal ions in the electrode structure, i.e. high diffusion, which means a transition to fine particles and nanostructures

Speaking about the different morphology of the anode, methods of providing electronic communication, in addition to the traditional one (active powder, graphite powder + holder), other forms of graphite as a conducting agent can also be distinguished:
A common approach is a combination of graphene and the main substance, when nanoparticles can be located directly on the graphene “sheet”, and it, in turn, will serve as a conductor and buffer during the expansion of the working substance. This structure was proposed for Co 3 O 4 778 mAh/g and is quite durable. Similar to 1100 mAh/g for Fe 2 O 3
but in view of the very low density of graphene, it is difficult to even assess how applicable such solutions are.
Another way is to use graphite nanotubes A.C. Dillon et al. experimenting with MoO 3 show a high capacity of 800 mAh/g (600mAh/g* 1430 Ah/l* ) with 5 wt% holder loss of capacity after 50 cycles being coated with aluminum oxide and also with Fe 3 O 4 , without using a holder stable 1000 mAh/g (770 -1000 Ah/l* ) Fig. right: SEM image of anode nanofibers / Fe 2 O 3 with graphite thin tubes 5 wt % (white)
M x O y +2yLi + +2ye -<-->yLi 2 O+xM

A few words about nanofibers

Recently, nanofibers have been one of the hot topics for publications in materials science publications, in particular those devoted to promising batteries, since they provide a large active surface with good coupling between particles.
Initially, nanofibers were used as a kind of active material nanoparticles, which, in a homogeneous mixture with a holder and conductive agents, form an electrode.
The question of the packing density of nanofibers is very complicated, since it depends on many factors. And, apparently, deliberately practically not illuminated (specifically in relation to the electrodes). This already makes it difficult to analyze the real indicators of the entire anode. To form an estimate, the author ventured to use the work of R. E. Muck, devoted to the analysis of the density of hay in bunkers. Judging by the SEM images of the nanofibers, an optimistic analysis of the packing density would be 30-40%
In the last 5 years, more attention has been focused on the synthesis of nanofibers directly on the current collector, which has a number of serious advantages:
Direct contact of the working material with the current collector is ensured, contact with the electric current is improved, and the need for graphite additives is eliminated. several stages of production are bypassed, the packing density of the working substance is significantly increased.
K. Chan et al. testing Ge nanofibers obtained 1000mAh/g (800Ah/l ) for low power and 800→550 (650→450 Ah/l*) at 2C after 50 cycles. At the same time, Yanguang Li and the authors showed high capacity and huge power of Co 3 O 4: 1100 → 800 mAh / g (880 → 640Ah / l *) after 20 cycles and 600 mAh / g (480 Ah / l *) at 20 times current increase

The inspiring works of A. Belcher**, which are the first steps into a new era of biotechnology, should be noted and recommended to everyone for familiarization.
By modifying the bacteriophage virus, A. Belcher managed to build nanofibers on its basis at room temperature, due to a natural biological process. Given the high structural clarity of such fibers, the resulting electrodes are not only harmless to environment, but also show both a compaction of the fiber package and a significantly more durable operation.

*- estimate of the real capacity calculated by the author (see appendix)
**
Angela Belcher is an outstanding scientist (chemist, electrochemist, microbiologist). Inventor of the synthesis of nanofibers and their ordering into electrodes through specially bred virus cultures
(see interview)

Application

As it was said, the charge of the anode occurs through the reaction

I did not find in the literature indications of the actual rates of expansion of the electrode during charging, so I propose to evaluate them by the smallest possible changes. That is, according to the ratio of the molar volumes of the reactants and reaction products (V Lihitated - the volume of the charged anode, V UnLihitated - the volume of the discharged anode), the densities of metals and their oxides can be easily found in open sources.

Calculation formulas	Calculation example for MoO 3

It should be borne in mind that the resulting volumetric capacity is the capacity of a continuous active substance, therefore, depending on the type of structure, the active substance occupies a different proportion of the volume of the entire material, this will be taken into account when introducing the packing factor k p . For example, for powder it is 50-70%

Highly reversible Co3O4/graphene hybrid anode for lithium rechargeable batteries. H.Kim et al. CARBON 49(2011) 326-332
Nanostructured Reduced Graphene Oxide/Fe2O3 Composite As a High-Performance Anode Material for Lithium Ion Batteries. ACSNANO VOL. 4 ▪ NO. 6 ▪ 3187–3194 ▪ 2010
Nanostructured Metal Oxide Anodes. A. C. Dillon. 2010
A New Way Of Looking At Bunker Silage Density. R. E. Muck. U S Dairy Forage Research Center Madison, Madison WI
High Capacity Li Ion Battery Anodes Using Ge Nanowires K. Chan et. al. NANO LETTERS 2008 Vol. 8, no. 1 307-309
Mesoporous Co3O4 Nanowire Arrays for Lithium Ion Batteries with High Capacity and Rate Capability. Yanguang Li et. al. NANO LETTERS 2008 Vol. 8, no. 1 265-270
Virus-Enabled Synthesis and Assembly of Nanowires for Lithium Ion Battery Electrodes Ki Tae Nam, Angela M. Belcher et al. www.sciencexpress.org /06 April 2006 / Page 1 / 10.1126/science.112271
Virus-Enabled Silicon Anode for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Xilin Chen et al. ACS Nano, 2010, 4(9), pp 5366–5372.
VIRUS SCAFFOLD FOR SELF-ASSEMBLED, FLEXIBLE AND LIGHT LITHIUM BATTERY MIT, Belcher A. US 006121346 (A1) WO 2008124440 (A1)

Lithium Ion HIT. cathodes

The cathodes of lithium-ion batteries must mainly be able to accept lithium ions, and provide a high voltage, and therefore a large energy along with the capacity.

An interesting situation has developed in the field of development and production of Li-Ion battery cathodes. In 1979, John Goodenough and Mizuchima Koichi patented LiMO2 layered cathodes for Li-Ion batteries that cover almost all existing lithium ion battery cathodes.
Key elements of the cathode
oxygen, as a link, a bridge, as well as lithium “catching” with its electron clouds.
A transition metal (i.e., a metal with valence d-orbitals), since it can form structures with a different number of bonds. The first cathodes used TiS 2 sulfur, but then they switched to oxygen, a more compact and, most importantly, more electronegative element, giving an almost completely ionic bond with metals. The layered structure of LiMO 2 (*) is the most common, and all developments are swarming around the three candidates M=Co, Ni, Mn and constantly looking at very cheap Fe .

Cobalt, contrary to many things, captured Olympus immediately and still holds it (90% of cathodes), but due to the high stability and correctness of the layered structure from 140 mAh / g, the capacity of LiCoO 2 increased to 160-170mAh / g, thanks to the expansion of the voltage range. But due to its rarity on Earth, Co is too expensive, and its use in its pure form can only be justified in small batteries, for example, for telephones. 90% of the market is occupied by the very first, and at the moment, still the most compact cathode.
Nickel was and remains a promising material showing high 190mA/g , but it is much less stable and such a layered structure in its pure form does not exist for Ni. The extraction of Li from LiNiO 2 produces almost 2 times more heat than from LiCoO 2, which makes its use in this area unacceptable.
Manganese. Another well-studied structure is the one invented in 1992. Jean-Marie Tarasco, manganese oxide spinel cathode LiMn 2 O 4 : with a slightly lower capacitance, this material is much cheaper than LiCoO 2 and LiNiO 2 and much more reliable. Today it is a good variant for hybrid vehicles. Recent developments are related to the alloying of nickel with cobalt, which significantly improves its structural properties. A significant improvement in stability was also noted when Ni was doped with electrochemically inactive Mg: LiNi 1-y Mg y O 2 . There are many alloys LiMn x O 2x for Li-ion cathodes.
fundamental problem- how to increase capacity. We have already seen with tin and silicon that the most obvious way to increase capacitance is to travel up the periodic table, but unfortunately there is nothing above the currently used transition metals (fig. right). Therefore, all the progress in recent years related to cathodes is generally associated with the elimination of existing shortcomings: increasing durability, improving quality, studying their combinations (Figure above on the left)
Iron. Since the beginning of the lithium-ion era, many attempts have been made to use iron in cathodes, but all to no avail. Although LiFeO 2 would be an ideal cheap and powerful cathode, it has been shown that Li cannot be extracted from the structure in the normal voltage range. The situation changed radically in 1997 with the study of e/h properties of Olivine LiFePO 4 . High capacity (170 mAh/g) about 3.4V with lithium anode and no serious drop in capacity even after several hundred cycles. The main disadvantage of olivine for a long time was poor conductivity, which significantly limited power. To remedy the situation, classical moves were made (grinding with graphite coating) using gel with graphite, it was possible to achieve high power at 120mAh / g for 800 cycles. Really huge progress has been achieved by a meager doping of Nb, increasing the conductivity by 8 orders of magnitude.
Everything suggests that Olivine will become the most massive material for electric vehicles. For the exclusive possession of the rights to LiFePO 4, A123 Systems Inc. has been suing for several years. and Black & Decker Corp, not without reason believing that it is the future of electric vehicles. Do not be surprised, but the patents are all filed for the same captain of the cathodes - John Goodenough.
Olivine proved the possibility of using cheap materials and broke through a kind of platinum. Engineering thought immediately rushed into the resulting space. So, for example, the replacement of sulfates with fluorophosphates is now being actively discussed, which will increase the voltage by 0.8 V, i.e. Increase energy and power by 22%.
It's funny: while the olivine rights dispute is going on, I came across a lot of noname manufacturers offering elements on the new cathode,

* All these compounds exist steadily only together with Lithium. And accordingly, already saturated with it are made. Therefore, when buying batteries based on them, you must first charge the battery by distilling part of the lithium to the anode.
** Understanding the development of lithium-ion battery cathodes, you involuntarily begin to perceive it as a duel between two giants: John Goodenough and Jean-Marie Tarasco. If Goodenough patented his first fundamentally successful cathode in 1980 (LiCoO 2 ), Dr. Trasko responded twelve years later (Mn 2 O 4 ). The second fundamental achievement of the American took place in 1997 (LiFePO 4 ), and in the middle of the past decade, the Frenchman is expanding the idea by introducing LiFeSO 4 F, and is working on the use of completely organic electrodes
Goodenough, J. B.; Mizuchima, K.U.S. Patent 4,302,518, 1980.
Goodenough, J. B.; Mizushima, K.U.S. Patent 4,357,215, 1981.
Lithium-Ion Batteries Science and Technologies. Masaki Yoshio, Ralph J. Brodd, Akiya Kozawa
Method for preparation of LiMn2 O4 intercalation compounds and use thereof in secondary lithium batteries. barbox; Philippe Shokoohi; Frough K., Tarascon; Jean Marie. Bell Communications Research Inc. 1992 US Patent 5,135,732.

Rechargeable electrochemical cell with cathode of stoichiometric titanium disulfide Whittingham; M. Stanley. US Patent 4,084,046 1976
Kanno, R.; Shirane, T.; Inaba, Y.; Kawamoto, Y. J. Power Sources 1997, 68, 145.
Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials. M. Stanley Whittingham Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271-4301
A 3.6 V lithium-based fluorosulphate insertion positive electrode for lithium-ion batteries. N. Recham1, J-N. Chotard1, L. Dupont1, C. Delacourt1, W. Walker1,2, M. Armand1 and J-M. Tarascon. NATURE MATERIAL November 2009.

Application

The capacity of the cathodes is again defined as the maximum charge extracted per weight of a substance, for example a group
Li 1-x MO 2 +Li + +e - ---> Li x MO 2

For example, for Co

with the degree of extraction of Li x=0.5, the capacity of the substance will be

On this moment improvements in the manufacturing process allowed to increase the degree of extraction and reach 160mAh / g
But, by far, most powders on the market do not reach these figures.

organic era.
At the beginning of the review, we cited the reduction of pollution as one of the main driving factors in the transition to electric vehicles. But take, for example, the modern hybrid car: it definitely burns less fuel, but in the production of a battery for it, 1 kWh burns approximately 387 kWh of hydrocarbons. Of course, such a car emits less pollutants, but there is still no escape from greenhouse gas during production (70-100 kg CO 2 per 1 kWh). In addition, in a modern consumer society, goods are not used until their resource is exhausted. That is, the period for “returning” this energy loan is short, and the disposal of modern batteries is expensive and not available everywhere. Thus, the energy efficiency modern batteries still questionable.
Recently, several encouraging biotechnologies have appeared that allow the synthesis of electrodes at room temperature. A. Belcher (viruses), J.M. Tarasco (use of bacteria).

An excellent example of such a promising biomaterial is lithized oxocarbon - Li 2 C 6 O 6 (Lithium Radisonate), which, having the ability to reversibly accommodate up to four Li per formula, showed a large gravimetric capacity, but since the reduction is associated with pi bonds, it is somewhat smaller in -potential (2.4 V). Similarly, other aromatic rings are considered as the basis for a positive electrode, also reporting a significant reduction in batteries.
The main "disadvantage" of any organic compounds is their low density, since all organic chemistry deals with light elements C, H, O and N. To understand how promising this direction is, it is enough to say that these substances can be obtained from apples and corn, and are also easily recyclable and recyclable.
Lithium radisonate would already be considered the most promising cathode for the automotive industry, if not for the limited current density (power) and the most promising for portable electronics, if not for the low density of the material (low volume capacitance) (Fig. left). In the meantime, this is still only one of the most promising fronts of work. Batteries

mobile devices

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"Quantum" battery

From February 26th to 28th, Tokyo hosts the Drive Show, featuring Micronics Japan Co., among others. ltd. Little is known about her previous developments, but most recently she announced that she had developed and prepared for production a new type of layered battery. The single cell shown by the company is an n-type metal-oxide-semiconductor structure film that uses titanium dioxide, tin dioxide, and zinc oxide particles coated with an insulating film. The prototype uses a sheet of stainless steel 10 microns thick, but soon it will be replaced with aluminum.

The quantum developers named their battery to emphasize its physical rather than chemical nature. Although it uses electrons instead of ions to store energy, this battery differs in principle from capacitors. The system is said to be based on storing electrons in the "bandgap" of the semiconductor.

In the production of metal-oxide-semiconductor structures, the charge layer of the accumulator is irradiated with ultraviolet light. After fabrication, when charged, electrons take up free energy levels in the working material and are stored there until the battery needs to be discharged. The result is rechargeable batteries with a very high energy storage density.
It is not known what performance the test samples have, but the developer claims that production samples that will appear in the near future will have a capacity of up to 500 Wh / l and at the same time will be able to deliver up to 8,000 W of peak power per liter of volume.
These storages combine best features batteries and supercapacitors. Even with a small capacity, they will be able to deliver high peak power. The voltage removed from such drives does not decrease as they are discharged, but remains stable until the end.
Declared operating temperature range from -25 to +85 °C. The battery can be subjected to 100,000 charge/discharge cycles before dropping below 90% of its original capacity. The ability to quickly take and give energy will greatly reduce the charging time. In addition, these batteries are fireproof. Rare or expensive materials are not used in its production. In general, there are so many pluses that it’s hard to believe.

Self-charging battery

A group of researchers led by Zhonglin Wang (Zhong Lin Wang) from the Georgia Institute of Technology (USA) has created a self-charging battery that does not require connection to a power outlet to recharge.
The device is charging from mechanical impact, to be exact - from pressing. It is planned to be used in smartphones and other touch devices.
The developers placed their device under the keys of the calculator and were able to ensure its performance during the day due to the energy from pressing the buttons.

The battery is a "prior" of polyvinylidene fluoride and zirconate-titanate-lead films several hundred micrometers thick. When pressed, lithium ions migrate from the cathode to the anode due to the piezoelectric effect. To increase the efficiency of the prototype, the researchers added nanoparticles to its piezoelectric material, which enhance the corresponding effect, and achieved a significant increase in the capacity and speed of recharging the device.
You need to understand that the battery is opaque, so it can only fit under the buttons or under the screen.
The battery does not have such outstanding characteristics as the previously described device (now the capacity of a battery the size of a standard tablet for motherboards has grown from the initial 0.004 to 0.010 mAh), but the developers promise to work on its efficiency. Production designs are still a long way off, although flexible screens - the main devices in which developers plan to place their battery - are not yet widely used. There is still time to finalize your invention and introduce it into production.

Sugar based battery

It seems that only Asians are engaged in the development of batteries. The prototype of another unusual battery was created at the American Virginia Polytechnic University.

This battery essentially runs on sugar, more precisely on maltodextrin, a polysaccharide obtained as a result of the hydrolysis of starch. The catalyst in such a battery is an enzyme. It is much cheaper than platinum, which is now used in conventional batteries. Such a battery belongs to the type of enzyme fuel cells. Electricity here is produced by the reaction of oxygen, air and water. Unlike hydrogen fuel cells, enzymes are non-flammable and non-explosive. And after the battery has exhausted its resource, according to the developers, it can be refilled with sugar.
ABOUT technical specifications of this type little is known about batteries. It is only claimed that the energy density in them is several times higher than in conventional lithium-ion batteries. The cost of such batteries is significantly lower than conventional ones, so the developers are full of confidence to find commercial applications for them in the next 3 years. Let's wait for the promise.

Battery with grenade structure

But scientists from the American National Accelerator Laboratory SLAC at Stanford University decided to increase the volume of conventional batteries, using the structure of a grenade.

The developers reduced the size of the anodes as much as possible and placed each of them in a carbon shell. This prevents their destruction. During the charging process, the particles expand and combine into clusters, which are also placed in a carbon shell. As a result of such manipulations, the capacity of these batteries is 10 times higher than the capacity of conventional lithium-ion batteries.
It follows from the experiments that after 1000 charge / discharge cycles, the battery retains 97% of its original capacity.
But it is too early to talk about the commercial application of this technology. Silicon nanoparticles are too expensive to manufacture and the process of creating such batteries is too complicated.

Atomic batteries

And finally, I'll talk about the development British scientists. They decided to surpass their colleagues by creating a miniature nuclear reactor. A tritium-based atomic battery prototype created by researchers at the University of Surrey produces enough power to power a mobile phone for 20 years. True, it will not be possible to recharge it later.

In the battery, which is an integrated circuit, a nuclear reaction occurs, as a result of which 0.8 - 2.4 watts of energy is generated. Working temperature battery is -50 to +150. However, she is not afraid sharp drops temperature and pressure.
The developers claim that the tritium contained in the battery is not dangerous for a person, because. its content there is very little. However, about mass production it is too early to say such power sources - scientists still have a lot of research and testing to do.

Conclusion

Of course, not all of the above technologies will find their application, however, it must be understood that in the next few years there should be a breakthrough in battery production technology, which will entail a surge in the spread of electric vehicles and the production of smartphones and other electronic devices new type.

Imagine mobile phone, which holds a charge for more than a week, and then charges in 15 minutes. Fantastic? But it may become a reality thanks to a new study by scientists at Northwestern University (Evanston, Illinois, USA). A team of engineers developed an electrode for lithium-ion rechargeable batteries (which are used in most cell phones today) that increased their energy capacity by 10 times. This pleasant surprises not limited - new battery devices can charge 10 times faster than current ones.

To overcome the restrictions imposed existing technologies on the energy capacity and charge rate of the battery, the scientists applied two different chemical engineering approaches. The resulting battery will not only extend the life of small electronic devices such as phones and laptops, but also pave the way for the development of more efficient and compact batteries for electric vehicles.

"We have found a way to extend the charge retention time of the new lithium-ion battery by 10 times," said Professor Harold H. Kung, one of the study's lead authors. “Even after 150 charge/discharge sessions, which means at least a year of operation, it remains five times more efficient than lithium-ion batteries on the market today.”

The operation of a lithium-ion battery is based on a chemical reaction in which lithium ions move between an anode and a cathode located at opposite ends of the battery. During battery operation, lithium ions migrate from the anode through the electrolyte to the cathode. When charging, their direction is replaced by the exact opposite. Current batteries have two important limitations. Their energy capacity - that is, the battery's charge retention time - is limited by the charge density, or how many lithium ions can fit on the anode or cathode. At the same time, the charging rate of such a battery is limited by the speed at which lithium ions are able to move through the electrolyte to the anode.

In today's rechargeable batteries, an anode made from many graphene sheets can have only one lithium atom for every six carbon atoms (which make up graphene). In an attempt to increase the energy capacity of batteries, scientists have already experimented with replacing carbon with silicon, which can hold much more lithium: four lithium atoms for every silicon atom. However, silicon during the charging process expands and contracts sharply, which causes fragmentation of the anode substance and, as a result, a rapid loss of the battery charging capacity.

Currently low speed charging the battery is explained by the shape of the graphene sheets: compared to the thickness (which is only one atom), their length is prohibitive. During charging, the lithium ion must cover the distance to the outer edges of the graphene sheets, and then pass between them and stop somewhere inside. Since lithium takes a long time to reach the middle of the graphene sheet, something like an ion jam is observed near its edges.

As already mentioned, Kung's research group solved both of these problems by adopting two different technologies. First, in order to ensure the stability of the silicon and, accordingly, maintain the maximum charging capacity of the battery, they placed silicon clusters between graphene sheets. This made it possible to increase the number of lithium ions in the electrode, while simultaneously using the flexibility of graphene sheets to account for changes in silicon volume during battery charging/discharging.

“Now we kill both birds with one stone,” Kung says. “Thanks to silicon, we get a higher energy density, and the interleaving of layers reduces the power loss caused by the expansion with contraction of silicon. Even with the destruction of silicon clusters, the silicon itself is not going anywhere.”

In addition, the researchers used a chemical oxidation process to create miniature (10-20 nanometers) holes in graphene sheets (“in-plane defects”) that provide lithium ions with “quick access” to the inside of the anode and subsequent storage in it as a result of reaction with silicon. This reduced the time required to charge the battery by a factor of 10.

So far, all efforts to optimize the operation of batteries have been directed to one of their components - the anode. At the next stage of research, scientists plan to study changes in the cathode for the same purpose. In addition, they want to refine the electrolyte system so that the battery can automatically (and reversibly) shut down at high temperatures, a protective mechanism that could be useful when batteries are used in electric vehicles.

According to the developers, current form new technology should enter the market within the next three to five years. An article on the results of research and development of new batteries was published in the journal Advanced Energy Materials.

Reading the question trudnopisaka :

“It would be interesting to learn about new battery technologies that are being prepared for mass production."

Well, of course, the mass production criterion is somewhat extensible, but let's try to find out what is promising now.

Here's what the chemists came up with:

Cell voltage in volts (vertical) and specific cathode capacity (mAh/g) new battery immediately after its manufacture (I), the first discharge (II), and the first charge (III) (illustration by Hee Soo Kim et al./Nature Communications).

In terms of energy potential, batteries based on a combination of magnesium and sulfur are able to bypass lithium ones. But so far, no one has been able to get these two substances to work together in a battery cell. Now, with some reservations, a group of specialists in the USA have succeeded.

Scientists from Toyota research institute V North America(TRI-NA) tried to solve main problem, standing in the way of creating magnesium-sulfur batteries (Mg/S).

Adapted from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

The Germans invented the fluoride-ion battery

In addition to the whole army of electrochemical current sources, scientists have developed another option. Its claimed advantages are less fire hazard and ten times the specific capacity than lithium-ion batteries.

Chemists at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) have come up with a battery concept based on metal fluorides and have even tested some small laboratory samples.

In such batteries, fluorine anions are responsible for the transfer of charges between the electrodes. The anode and cathode of the battery contain metals, which, depending on the direction of the current (charge or discharge), turn into fluorides in turn or are reduced back to metals.

“Because a single metal atom can accept or donate multiple electrons at once, this concept allows for extremely high energy densities – up to ten times higher than conventional lithium-ion batteries,” says co-author Dr. Maximilian Fichtner.

To test the idea, German researchers created several samples of such batteries with a diameter of 7 millimeters and a thickness of 1 mm. The authors studied several electrode materials (copper and bismuth combined with carbon, for example), and created an electrolyte based on lanthanum and barium.

However, such a solid electrolyte is only an intermediate step. This composition, which conducts fluorine ions, works well only when high temperature. Therefore, chemists are looking for a replacement for it - a liquid electrolyte that would operate at room temperature.

(Details can be found in the institute's press release and an article in the Journal of Materials Chemistry.)

Batteries of the future

What awaits the battery market in the future is still difficult to predict. Lithium batteries are still reigning supreme, and they have good potential thanks to lithium polymer developments. The introduction of silver-zinc elements is a very long and expensive process, and its expediency is still a debatable issue. Fuel cell and nanotube technologies have been praised and described in the most beautiful terms for many years, but when it comes to practice, the actual products are either too bulky or too expensive, or both. Only one thing is clear - in the coming years, this industry will continue to develop actively, because the popularity of portable devices is growing by leaps and bounds.

In parallel with laptops focused on offline work, the direction of desktop laptops is developing, in which the battery rather plays the role of a backup UPS. Recently, Samsung released a similar laptop without a battery at all.

IN NiCd-accumulators also have the possibility of electrolysis. To prevent explosive hydrogen from accumulating in them, the batteries are equipped with microscopic valves.

at the renowned institute MIT has recently been developed unique technology production lithium batteries by the efforts of specially trained viruses.

Although fuel cell Outwardly, it is completely different from a traditional battery; it works according to the same principles.

And who else will tell you some promising directions?

More than 200 years ago, the German physicist Wilhelm Ritter created the world's first battery. Compared to the then-existing A. Volta battery, Wilhelm's storage device could be repeatedly charged and discharged. Over the course of two centuries, the battery of electricity has changed a lot, but unlike the "wheel", it continues to be invented to this day. Today, new technologies in the production of batteries are dictated by the advent of latest devices in need of independent power supply. New and more powerful gadgets, electric cars, flying drones - all these devices require smaller, lighter, but more capacious and durable batteries.

The fundamental structure of the battery can be described in a nutshell - these are electrodes and electrolyte. It is from the material of the electrodes and the composition of the electrolyte that the characteristics of the battery depend and its type is determined. Currently, there are more than 33 types of rechargeable power supplies, but the most used ones are:

• lead acid;
• nickel-cadmium;
• nickel-metal hydride;
• lithium-ion;
• lithium polymer;
• nickel-zinc.

The work of any of them is a reversible chemical reaction, that is, the reaction that occurs when discharging is restored when charging.

The field of application of batteries is quite wide and, depending on the type of device that works from it, certain requirements are imposed on the battery. For example, for gadgets, it should be light, minimally sized and have enough large capacity. For a power tool or a flying drone, the recoil current is important, since the consumption electric current high enough. At the same time, there are requirements that apply to all batteries - this is a high capacity and resource of charge cycles.

Scientists all over the world are working on this issue, a lot of research and testing is being carried out. Unfortunately, many designs that showed excellent electrical and operational results turned out to be too expensive in cost and were not launched in mass production. WITH technical side, the best materials silver and gold are used to create batteries, and from an economic point of view, the price of such a product will be inaccessible to the consumer. At the same time, the search for new solutions does not stop, and the first significant breakthrough was the lithium-ion battery.

It was first introduced in 1991 Japanese company Sony. The battery was characterized by high density and low self-discharge. However, she had flaws.

The first generation of such power supplies was explosive. Over time, dendrites accumulated on the anode, which led to a short circuit and fire. In the process of improvement in the next generation, a graphite anode was used and this drawback was eliminated.

The second disadvantage was the memory effect. With constant incomplete charging, the battery lost capacity. Work on eliminating this shortcoming has been supplemented new trend desire for miniaturization. The desire to create ultra-thin smartphones, ultrabooks and other devices required science to develop a new power source. In addition, the already outdated lithium-ion battery did not satisfy the needs of modellers who needed a new source of electricity with a much higher density and high output current.

As a result, a polymer electrolyte was used in the lithium-ion model, and the effect exceeded all expectations.

The improved model was not only devoid of the memory effect, but also several times superior to its predecessor in all respects. For the first time, it was possible to create a battery with a thickness of only 1 mm. At the same time, its format could be the most diverse. Such batteries began to be in great demand immediately both among modellers and mobile phone manufacturers.

But there were still shortcomings. The element turned out to be a fire hazard, heated up during recharging and could ignite. Modern polymer batteries are equipped with a built-in circuit to prevent overcharging. It is also recommended to charge them only with special chargers supplied or similar models.

Not less than important characteristic battery - cost. Today it is the most a big problem on the path of battery development.

Electric vehicle power

Tesla Motors creates batteries using new technologies based on components trademark Panasonic. Finally, the secret is not revealed, but the test result pleases. Ecomobile Tesla Model S, equipped with a battery of only 85 kWh, traveled just over 400 km on a single charge. Of course, the world is not without the curious, so one of these batteries, worth 45,000 USD, was nevertheless opened.

Inside were a lot of Panasonic lithium-ion cells. At the same time, the autopsy did not give all the answers that I would like to receive.

Future technologies

Despite a long period stagnation, science is on the verge of a great breakthrough. It is quite possible that tomorrow a mobile phone will work for a month without recharging, and an electric car will travel 800 km on a single charge.

Nanotechnology

Scientists at the University of Southern California claim that replacing graphite anodes with silicon wires with a diameter of 100 nm will increase battery capacity by 3 times, and reduce charging time to 10 minutes.

Stanford University proposed fundamentally the new kind anodes. Porous carbon nanowires coated with sulfur. According to them, such a power source accumulates 4-5 times more electricity than a Li-ion battery.

US scientist David Kizaylus stated that rechargeable batteries based on magnetite crystals will not only be more capacious, but also relatively cheap. After all, these crystals can be obtained from the teeth of a shellfish.

Scientists at the University of Washington look at things more practically. They have already patented new battery technologies that use a tin anode instead of a graphite electrode. Everything else will not change and new batteries can easily replace the old ones in our familiar gadgets.

Revolution today

Electric cars again. So far, they are still inferior to cars in terms of power and mileage, but this is not for long. So say representatives of the corporation IBM, who proposed the concept of lithium-air batteries. Moreover, a new power supply superior in all respects is promised to be presented to the consumer this year.