The problem of the formation of an industrial society. Industrial society - what is it? The characteristics of an industrial society are

19.10.2022

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" Industrial society:characteristics and features"

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There are several options for the typology of societies. The most modern is the theory that was put forward by the American sociologist Daniel Bell. He divides the development of society into three stages. The first stage is a pre-industrial, agricultural, conservative society, closed to outside influences, based on natural production; the second stage, actually the one that will be discussed further, is an industrial society, which is based on industrial production, developed market relations, democracy and openness; and, finally, in the second half of the twentieth century, the third stage begins - a post-industrial society, which is characterized by the use of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution; sometimes it is called the information society, because the main thing is no longer the production of a certain material product, but the production and processing of information.

This paper raises the topic of identifying important features and characteristics of the stages of human development - the stage of industrial society.

1. Definition and distinguishing features

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY - a society in which industrialization took place, which created new technological foundations for its development. The term belongs to Henri Saint-Simon, was used by Comte to oppose the new, emerging economic and social order to the former, pre-industrial one. Modern theories of industrial society are a kind of technological determinism.

Distinctive features of an industrial society:

· Approval of the industrial technological order as dominant in all social spheres (from economic to cultural).

· Changes in the proportions of employment by industry: a significant reduction in the share of people employed in agriculture (up to 3-5%) and an increase in the share of people employed in industry (up to 50-60%) and the service sector (up to 40-45%).

Intensive urbanization.

· Emergence of the nation-state, organized on the basis of a common language and culture.

The educational revolution. The transition to universal literacy and the formation of national education systems.

· A political revolution leading to the establishment of political rights and freedoms (primarily the right to vote).

· Growth in the level of consumption ("revolution of consumption", the formation of a "welfare state").

· Changing the structure of working and free time (the formation of a "consumer society").

· Changes in the demographic type of development (low birth rate, low mortality, increased life expectancy, aging of the population, i.e., an increase in the proportion of older age groups).

Industrialization is the basis of a broader social process of modernization. The "industrial society" model has often been used as a catch-all to describe modern society, embracing capitalism and socialism as its two variants. The theories of convergence (rapprochement, convergence) emphasized the signs of convergence between capitalist and socialist societies, which ultimately become neither classically capitalist nor traditionally socialist.

2. The theory of industrial society D. Bell

Daniel Bell is an American philosopher and sociologist and a professor at Harvard University. Major works: The New American Law (1955), The End of Ideology. The Depletion of Political Ideas in the 1950s (1960), Marxist Socialism in the United States (Second Edition, 1967), The Coming Post-Industrial Society. The Experience of Social Forecasting" (1973), "Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism" (1976), "Social Sciences after the Second World War" (1982), etc.

In the late 1930s and 1940s, he took part in the radical left movement, and then, in the early 1950s, he evolved to liberal reformism, and finally, in the 1960s, he switched to neoconservatism. In 1955, B., together with I. Kristol and D. Moynihan, founded the magazine "The Public Interest". B. - one of the most prominent representatives of the scientist-technocratic trend in social philosophy. In 1960, Bell was one of the main authors (simultaneously with Aron) of the concept of de-ideologization, which became the source of the theory of industrial society. According to Bell, the central variables that determine the trends, dynamics and direction of the development of an industrial society are labor and capital, and the contradictions between them constitute the main source of its development. The main tool for optimizing such a society, as well as managing the organizations and enterprises existing in it, is machine technology.

Technologies as instrumental methods of rational action are the main determinant of social development. The very same development of technology occurs jerkily. Moreover, it is possible to single out whole epochs in its autonomous self-development, within which various social transformations take place. Although technological revolutions are ideal in their theoretical foundations, quite real material forms act as their symbols and at the same time carriers, for example, for a post-industrial society, this “thing” is a computer. Bell introduces the so-called "axial principle" into his philosophical and sociological concept as a theoretical and methodological foundation. Its essence lies in the fact that different types of society develop in the context of a certain core line that determines the social, economic, cultural and political image of their understanding. Depending on the choice of the main axis, according to Bell, the historical process can, for example, be considered as a change in forms of ownership and social formations corresponding to them. And then its interpretation in terms of "feudalism", "capitalism", "socialism" is justified.

If, instead of this dimension, a different “axial principle” is used, where the “main pivotal line” is the status and historical role of human knowledge, then social evolution looks completely different: pre-industrial - industrial - post-industrial society. In contrast to the industrial society, in the post-industrial era, it is knowledge that, according to Bell, is the main source of wealth and power, so the decisive means of control are no longer machine, but intellectual technologies. In the coming century, the formation of the telecommunications system will be of decisive importance. To understand the essence and nature of the “telecommunication revolution”, which plays a decisive role in the organization and processing of information and knowledge, three aspects are especially important:

transition from industrial to "service society"

the paramount importance of codified theoretical knowledge for the implementation of technological innovations

· the transformation of new intellectual technology into a key tool for system analysis and decision-making theory.

The interaction of these three aspects predetermines the enormous importance of theoretical knowledge as the "axial principle" of post-industrial society. At the same time, in the context of the problem of the “directing and determining” force of social changes in this society, the importance of the fact that it is becoming more and more open and indeterminate (conditioned by something), as well as its “social density” is increasing. Recognizing that knowledge and information are becoming strategic resources and agents of the transformation of post-industrial society, Bell, at the same time, seeks to avoid accusations of adherence to technological determinism. Therefore, he formulates the concept of the multidimensionality of the social organism. In this concept, each of the spheres - the economy, social life, culture, politics - develops according to special laws inherent only to it.

Therefore, these spheres are able not only to interact, but also to resist each other. In particular, the “information society”, due to growing cultural contradictions, may face the danger of an even deeper gap between cultural and social life. There is a growing contradiction between the “revolution of growing aspirations”, which is very undesirable and dangerous for the development of society, and the “revolution of growing expectations”, which has been supplanted by it, but which has been operating for decades.

The most significant reasons for these undesirable revolutions, Bell argues, lie both in the exorbitant level of demands made by their champions and in the fact that they are universal. This violates the established order in society, undermines social stability, and gives rise to numerous intergroup conflicts. The consequence of this situation is political instability, complemented by economic instability. The best means to eradicate these instabilities are the market system of organizing the economy and, based on the philosophy of neoconservatism, the principles of order and stability, which are actively introduced into the life of modern society.

In line with social evolutionism, based on the opposition of traditional and modern societies, the theory of industrial society was formed in the 1950s and 1960s (R. Aron, W. Rostow). The theory of industrial society describes the progressive development of society as a transition from a backward agrarian (traditional) society dominated by a subsistence economy and a class hierarchy to an advanced industrial society.

Industrial society is characterized by:

1) a developed and complex system of division of labor in society as a whole, with specialization in specific areas of production and management;

2) mass production of goods for a wide market;

3) mechanization and automation of production and management;

4) scientific and technological revolution.

From the point of view of this theory, the main characteristics of large-scale industry determine the form of people's behavior not only in the sphere of organization and management of production, but in all other spheres of social life.

In the 1960s, the theory of industrial society was developed in the theory of post-industrial society. D. Bella. From his point of view, society in its development goes through the following stages:

pre-industrial society;

Industrial Society;

post-industrial society.

Table. The main characteristics of the societies identified by D. Bell:

Criteria	pre-industrial	Industrial	post-industrial
Main field of activity	Agriculture	Industry	Services sector
Most influential social group	landowners, priests	industrialists,	Scientists, consultants
Specific forms of social organization	Church, army	Corporations, banks	Universities
social stratification	Sos., caste, slave.		Prof. groups
The social status of an individual is determined		money	Knowledge

Theories of industrial and post-industrial society are within the framework of social evolutionism, since they assume the passage of certain stages by society on the basis of technical and technological innovations.

The term "post-industrial society" corresponds to "pre-industrial" and "industrial". The pre-industrial society is mainly mining, its economy is based on agriculture, coal mining, energy, gas, fishing, timber industry. An industrial society is primarily a manufacturing society in which energy and machine technology are used to produce goods. A post-industrial society is an organism in which telecommunications and computers play a major role in the production and exchange of information and knowledge.

If an industrial society is based on machine production, then a post-industrial society is characterized by intellectual production.

The products of an industrial society are produced in distinct, clearly identified units, exchanged and sold, consumed and worn out like a piece of cloth or a car.

Knowledge, even if it is sold, remains with its producer. It is a "collective commodity" in the sense that, once produced, it by its very nature becomes the property of all.

A post-industrial society does not replace a fully industrial society, just as an industrial society does not discard the agricultural sectors of the economy. New features are superimposed on the old ones, erasing some of them, but on the whole complicating the structure of society.

It would be useful to highlight some of the new dimensions of post-industrial society.

· Centralization of theoretical knowledge.

· Creation of new intellectual technology.

· Formation of a class of producers of knowledge.

· Transition from the production of goods to the production of services.

Change in the nature of work.

In pre-industrial society, life was a game between man and nature, in which people interacted with natural nature - land, water, forests, working in small groups and depending on it. In an industrial society, work is a game between man and the built environment, where people are overshadowed by machines that produce goods. In a post-industrial society, work becomes primarily a game of a person with a computer (between an official and a petitioner, a doctor and a patient, a teacher and a student).

The role of a woman.

· Science at a new stage of its development.

· "Sitosy" as political subdivisions.

There are 4 types of functional sites - scientific, technological, administrative and cultural, as well as 5 institutional sites - economic enterprises, government offices, universities and research centers, social complexes (hospitals, service centers, etc.) and the military sphere. In my opinion, the main struggle of interests will develop between sitos.

1. Meritocracy. The post-industrial society, being primarily a technical society, provides the best positions in it on the basis of inheritance or property (although these factors may contribute to certain educational and cultural advantages, but based on knowledge and qualifications).

2. End of scarcity.

3. Economics of information.

industrial society technological

Conclusion

Dividing the history of human society into three stages - agrarian, industrial and post-industrial, D. Bell sought to outline the contours of post-industrial society, largely starting from the characteristics of the industrial stage. Like other theorists of industrialism (primarily T. Veblen), he interprets industrial society as organized around the production of things and machines for the production of things. The concept of an industrial society, he emphasizes, covers the past and present of various countries that may belong to opposite political systems, including such antagonists as the USA and the USSR. It is the industrial character of society, according to Bell, that determines its social structure, including the system of professions and social strata. At the same time, the social structure "is separated analytically" from the political and cultural dimensions of society. According to D. Bell, the changes in the social structure taking place in the middle of the 20th century indicate that the industrial society is evolving towards a post-industrial one, which should become the defining social form of the 21st century, primarily in the USA, Japan, the Soviet Union and Western Europe.

Scientific and technological achievements play a special role in shaping global trends. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the universal typology of a public organization in most cases is built taking into account the stage at which a country is in mastering advanced scientific and technological achievements. This approach is presented in the theory of post-industrial society, the author of which was the American sociologist D. Bell.

Within the framework of this theory, three types of social organization are distinguished, which at the same time are three successive stages of world development: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial.

The industrial type of social organization is typical for a number of European countries, the states of the former USSR. It is based on the development of industry, the production of consumer goods.

The industrial revolution liberates the individual: personal dependence is replaced by personal independence. It manifests itself in the fact that the appropriation of the means of production and means of subsistence is not mediated in a market economy by a person's belonging to any collective. Each commodity producer manages at his own risk and determines for himself what, how and how much to produce, to whom, when and under what conditions to sell their products. However, this formal personal independence has as its basis a comprehensive property dependence on other commodity producers (and, above all, dependence in the line of production and consumption of vital goods).

The reification of relations between commodity producers acts as the germ of the alienation of labor, which characterizes various aspects of the dominance of the past labor over the living, the product of labor over activity, the thing over man, which has developed under a market economy.

The prerequisites for overcoming it are formed in the process of transition from an industrial society to a post-industrial one.

List of used literature

1. D. Bell. “The Coming Post-Industrial Society. The experience of social forecasting” Translated from English. ed. V.L. Inozemtseva. M., "Academia", 1999.

2. D. Bell. "The Social Framework of the Information Society". Abbreviated translation by Yu.V.Nikulichev / New technocratic wave in the West. Ed. P.S. Gurevich. M., 1998.

3. Berezhnoy N.M. Social philosophy (in 2 parts). M., GASBU, 1997.

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general characteristics

The generally accepted characteristic of an industrial society includes several fundamental features. What are they? First, an industrial society is based on a developed industry. It has a division of labor that promotes productivity. An important feature is competition. Without it, the characterization of industrial society would be incomplete.

Capitalism leads to the fact that the entrepreneurial activity of courageous and enterprising people is actively growing. At the same time, civil society is developing, as well as the state administrative system. It becomes more efficient and more complex. An industrial society cannot be imagined without modern means of communication, urbanized cities and a high quality of life for the average citizen.

Technology Development

Any characteristic of an industrial society, in short, includes such a phenomenon as the industrial revolution. It was she who allowed Great Britain to be the first in human history to cease to be an agrarian country. When the economy begins to rely not on the cultivation of agricultural crops, but on a new industry, the first shoots of an industrial society appear.

At the same time, there is a noticeable redistribution of labor resources. The labor force leaves agriculture and goes to the city to work in factories. Up to 15% of the state's inhabitants remain in the agricultural sector. The growth of the urban population also contributes to the revival of trade.

Entrepreneurial activity becomes the main factor in production. The presence of this phenomenon is the characteristic of an industrial society. This relationship was first described briefly by the Austrian and American economist Joseph Schumpeter. On this path, society at a certain point experiences a scientific and technological revolution. After that, the post-industrial period begins, which already corresponds to the present.

Free society

With the onset of industrialization, society becomes socially mobile. This allows people to destroy the framework that exists under the traditional order, characteristic of the Middle Ages and the agrarian economy. In the state, the boundaries between classes are blurred. They lose caste. In other words, people can get rich and become successful thanks to their efforts and skills, without looking back at their own background.

The characteristic of an industrial society is a significant economic growth that occurs due to an increase in the number of highly qualified specialists. In society, technicians and scientists who determine the future of the country are in the first place. This order is also called technocracy or the power of technology. The work of merchants, advertising specialists and other people who occupy a special position in the social structure becomes more significant and weighty.

The formation of nation-states

Scientists have determined that the main characteristics of an industrial society boil down to being industrial and becoming dominant in all areas of life from culture to economics. Along with urbanization and changes in social stratification comes the emergence of nation-states built around a common language. The unique culture of the ethnic group also plays an important role in this process.

In a medieval agrarian society, the national factor was not so significant. In the Catholic kingdoms of the 14th century, belonging to one or another feudal lord was much more important. Even armies existed on the principle of hiring. It was only in the 19th century that the principle of national recruitment into the state armed forces was finally formed.

Demography

The demographic situation is changing. What is the characteristic of industrial society here? Signs of change boil down to declining birth rates in one average family. People devote more time to their own education, standards are changing in relation to the presence of offspring. All this affects the number of children in one classical “cell of society”.

But at the same time, the death rate is falling. This is due to the development of medicine. Medical services and medicines are becoming more accessible to a wide segment of the population. Increases life expectancy. The population dies more in old age than in youth (for example, from diseases or wars).

Consumer society

The enrichment of people in the industrial age led to the emergence of the main motive for the work of its members is the desire to buy and acquire as much as possible. A new system of values is being born, which is built around the importance of material wealth.

The term was coined by the German sociologist Erich Fromm. In this context, he emphasized the importance of reducing the length of the working day, increasing the share of free time, as well as blurring the boundaries between classes. This is the characteristic of an industrial society. The table shows the main features of this period of human development.

Mass culture

The classic characteristic of an industrial society by spheres of life says that consumption increases in each of them. Production begins to focus on the standards that defines the so-called This phenomenon - one of the most striking features of an industrial society.

What is it? Mass culture formulates the basic psychological attitudes of the consumer society in the industrial era. Art becomes accessible to everyone. It voluntarily or involuntarily promotes certain norms of behavior. They can be called fashion or lifestyle. In the West, the rise of mass culture was accompanied by its commercialization and the creation of show business.

John Galbraith's theory

The industrial society was carefully studied by many scientists of the 20th century. One of the prominent economists in this series is John Galbraith. He substantiated several fundamental laws with the help of which the characteristics of an industrial society are formulated. At least 7 provisions of his theory have become fundamental for the new and currents of our time.

Galbraith believed that the development of industrial society led not only to the establishment of capitalism, but also to the creation of monopolies. Large corporations in free market economic conditions acquire wealth and absorb competitors. They control production, trade, capital, and progress in science and technology.

Strengthening the economic role of the state

An important characteristic, according to John Galbraith's theory, is that in a country with such a system of relations, the state increases its intervention in the economy. Prior to this, in the agrarian era of the Middle Ages, the authorities simply did not have the resources to radically influence the market. In an industrial society, the situation is quite the opposite.

The economist in his own way noted the development of technology in the new era. By this term, he meant the application of systematized new knowledge in production. Demands lead to the triumph of corporations and the state in the economy. This is due to the fact that they become the owners of unique scientific production developments.

At the same time, Galbraith believed that under industrial capitalism, the capitalists themselves had lost their former influence. Now the presence of money did not mean power and importance at all. Instead of owners, scientific and technical specialists come to the fore, who can offer new modern inventions and production methods. This is the characteristic of an industrial society. According to Galbraith's plan, the former working class is being eroded under these conditions. The aggravated relations between the proletarians and the capitalists are coming to naught thanks to technological progress and the equalization of the incomes of graduates.

Plan:

1. The concept of "industrial society", the conditions for the emergence and development

2. Features of the formation of an industrial society in Russia.

1. The era of modern times is identified with the formation and development of industrial society, which marked the transition from feudalism to capitalism.

This process went through the following development phases:

Early industrial (XIV - XV centuries),

Middle industrial (XVI - XVIII centuries),

late industrial (nineteenth century) and

Post-industrial (twentieth century).

Highlight the reasons for the transition from a medieval (agrarian) society to an industrial one.

What are the characteristics of it?

Please note that the stage of formation of an industrial society is characterized by elements of capitalism: the initial accumulation of capital and the emergence of manufactories.

Cities were the center of development of bourgeois relations. There was a so-called. the "third estate", which consisted of merchants, usurers and craftsmen, which became the basis for the formation of the bourgeois class.

Elements of capitalist development gradually penetrated into the main stronghold of feudalism - the countryside. Farms based on hired labor were formed there.

The development of capitalism was accompanied by technical progress and the formation of common national markets, great geographical discoveries.

This process was most rapid in England and the Northern Netherlands, which led to the early bourgeois revolutions.

The continuation of the development of capitalism was the industrial revolution - the transformation of the productive forces, which marked the transition from manual labor to machine production, from manufactory to the factory.

In England, the industrial revolution took place in the 80s of the 18th century, at the end of the century France joined it, a little later - the USA and Germany.

The completion of the industrial revolution coincided with the end of the formation of industrial society. In England - by the beginning of the 60s of the nineteenth century, in France and the USA - by the beginning of the 70s, in Germany and Austria-Hungary - by the end of the 80s, in the countries of Northern Europe - in the 90s.

In parallel, there are changes in the state structure of European countries. Absolute monarchies disappear almost completely. They are replaced by constitutional monarchies or republics.

By the end of the XIX century. a system of the world economy is taking shape, which included three components: large-scale machine industry, modern transport, and the world market. In general, an industrial society took shape in Europe by the beginning of the 20th century.

2. Russia is distinguished by a later beginning of the transition to an industrial society under the dominance of feudalism and serfdom. As a result - the deformation of capitalist relations.

The transfer of the traditions of an agrarian society to the industrial sphere could not give a lasting result; for 150 years, serf labor remained competitive and limited the development of capitalist industry.

The undulation and inconsistency of the modernization process was also due to the need to conduct military operations.

The formation and development of an industrial society in Russia is represented by the following stages:

1. Proto-industrial stage (first quarter of the 18th century)

The period of transformations of Peter I, the formation of the manufacturing industry, an active trade balance, the third estate, as well as the decisive role of the state in financing and managing the industrial sector of the economy.

2. Early industrial stage (30s - 40s of the 19th century)

Includes the industrial revolution, which initially embraced light industry enterprises. This stage is characterized by extensive expansion of the industrial sphere, the multistructural nature of the economy.

3. Industrial stage (late 19th - first half of 20th century)

The industrial revolution is being completed, industry and the banking system are being monopolized, and the main classes of bourgeois society are being formed.

The Soviet specificity of industrialization was the state, planned form, the elimination of market relations, the political and economic dictatorship of the working class in the form of a party-bureaucratic administrative system.

Describe each of these periods.

Highlight the features of the formation of an industrial society in Russia.

Literature:

1. The English bourgeois revolution of the middle of the 17th century (To the 350th anniversary): abstract collection. - M, 1991.

2. Barg M.A. Place of the 17th century in the history of Europe: On the question of the "beginning of a new time" // Questions of history. - 1985. - No. 3.

3. E. Bychkova. At the dawn of diesel energy or the Russian cut of a German diamond. Industrialization of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. // Motherland. - 2011. - No. 1.

4. Weber M. Selected works. M., 1989.

5. Grokh M. From the crisis of feudal society to the bourgeois revolution // New and recent history. - 1987. - No. 6.

6. Davydov Yu.N. Weber's concept of capitalism // Socis. - 1994. - No. 3.

7. History of world civilizations: textbook / Ed. M.V. Khachaturian. – M.: Bustard, 2000.

8. Kosarev A.N. Revolutions: a comparative description of the formation of statehood in England, France, Russia in modern times // State and Law, 1994. - No. 8-9.

9. Magidovich V.I. Essays on the history of geographical discoveries. In 3 vols. T. 2, 3. - M., 1983.

10. Malov V.N. Unity and contradictions of the late feudal period // New and recent history. - 1986. - No. 4.

11. Medushevsky A.N. Absolutism XVI - XVII centuries. // New and recent history. - 1991. - No. 3.

12. Solovieva A.M. Industrial revolution in Russia in the 19th century. M., 1990.

13. Stepanov A.I. Russia's place in the world on the eve of the First World War // Questions of history. - 1993. - No. 2.

14. Tushina G.M. Features of civil society in a medieval European city // Questions of history. - 1999. - No. 6.

15. Fogler G. Unity and diversity in the process of transition from feudalism to capitalism // New and recent history. - 1990. - No. 3.

16. Fursov A.I. The Emergence of Capitalism and European Civilization: Sociogenetic Interpretation // Sotsis. - 1990. - No. 10.

16. Shirokov G.K. Paradoxes of the evolution of capitalism (West and East). Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, 1998.

An important phenomenon in the industrial development of Russia was the beginning in the 30-50s. 19th century industrial revolution, that is, the transition to an industrial mode of production using machine technology and freelance labor. The use of machines from 1826 to 1860 on the scale of Russia increased by 86 times, however, machine production became predominant only in some sectors of the light and manufacturing industries, such as textile (cotton) and distillery, focused on mass-market products. Thanks to the use of machines, labor productivity in industry in the 1950s. grew 3 times.

However, for Russia in the first half of the XIX century. was characterized by the predominance of small, mostly handicraft, production, peasant crafts, which gave 2 / 3 of the output of the manufacturing industry. Under the conditions of serfdom and the cheapness of free-lance labor of otkhodnik peasants, the use of expensive machines was unprofitable for the owners of industrial enterprises.

The abolition of serfdom in 1861 and the formation of a free wage labor market radically changed the situation. In the 70-90s. 19th century in all branches of industry, the industrial revolution was basically completed and the industrial mode of production was established. This was also facilitated by such factors as the completion of the initial accumulation of capital (mainly in the sphere of trade); development of the internal market and means of communication; the protectionist policy of the government and the technical experience of the advanced countries of the West, which have already embarked on the path of industrial development.

For 40 years, from 1860 to 1900, the volume of industrial production in Russia increased by more than 7 times (while in England - only 2 times). At the end of the century, in terms of growth rates, Russian industry lagged behind only the United States. The economic recovery of the 1990s was especially stormy: only during this decade, industrial production in Russia more than doubled, 40% of the enterprises operating by 1900 were built.
By the end of the century, light industry still provided more than half of the output, but heavy industry developed at an accelerated pace. It was here that modern technology was used, specialists were involved and fixed capital (including foreign ones) was invested. Coal production has increased 25 times over 25 years, and oil - 226 times. However, in terms of the general level of development, Russia still lagged far behind the West. So, in terms of one inhabitant, in Russia iron was smelted 13 times less than in England.

A characteristic feature of the development of Russian industry was its high concentration. Three-fourths of all workers were employed in large factories and plants.

The large-scale construction of railways that unfolded in the post-reform period provided the industry with a stable market for a decade and thereby accelerated the process of industrialization. Public and private capital was attracted to the construction of railways, and shareholders were guaranteed a steady annual profit. In the 90s. 22 thousand miles of railways were built out of 56 thousand miles available in the country in 1901. At the same time, the state invested about 3.5 billion rubles in this construction.

In the post-reform period, the financial system of Russia was formed. In 1860, the State Bank was established, in 1882 - the Peasant Land Bank, and in 1885 - the Noble Land Bank. By 1879, there were 39 joint-stock commercial and 235 urban public banks. The government sought to implement a tough financial policy; the wine monopoly was used to replenish the state budget, as well as loans abroad. Since 1888, the budget of Russia began to have a deficit-free character.

Thanks to the development of industry, the domestic market increased, into which the countryside was also drawn, presenting a demand for factory fabrics, more advanced tools and machines. In foreign trade, an active trade balance was maintained (the excess of exports over imports), over the 40 post-reform years, foreign trade turnover increased by 3 times, although Russia continued to export mainly agricultural products (47% of exports were grain).

Economic development also affected changes in the social structure. According to the 1897 census, the population of Russia was 125.6 million people. The productive population was 94.5% (employed in agriculture, industry, trade and transport). The process of urbanization of the population was gaining momentum: in 1863, 9.94% of the population lived in cities, and in 1897 - 12.76%. Russia was distinguished by a high birth rate (48.7 per 1,000 inhabitants) and a high mortality rate (38.2 per 1,000 inhabitants).

In the post-reform period, the process of formation of new social groups characteristic of capitalism is completed. The industrial proletariat, according to the census, amounted to 5.2 million people. It was formed mainly by people from the countryside, as well as urban residents (primarily artisans). Most of the workers were peasants according to their class status. In the village, a plot was kept behind them, and their family often lived there. Gradually, the proletariat became cadre: by the end of the century, 55% of the workers were hereditary (children of workers).

The industrial bourgeoisie was made up of merchants, nobles, and philistines, but one of the main sources of its replenishment was peasant entrepreneurs. The largest industrial dynasties (Morozovs, Ryabushinskys, Prokhorovs, Guchkovs, Konovalovs) were founded by people from the peasant class.

The formation of an industrial society took place throughout the 20th century unevenly in different regions and is associated with the scientific and technological revolution. The United States enters this stage in 1914-1929, Western Europe in the 3050s, Japan in the 50s-60s, when productive labor began to combine with scientific knowledge and the technical, economic and sociocultural base of industrial society was created, industrial society has various socio-economic options ("bourgeois", "socialist", a combination of "traditional" and "modern" and others).

A general description of the industrial society was given by K. Marx. Its essence: there is industrial production associated with constantly developing technology, new goods are being released, and a service sector is being created. All this played a huge civilizational role. As a result, the social structures of the traditional society were broken down, new social relations, a new way of life, the rhythm of work, discipline, and the expansion of literacy and horizons arose. However, the development and functioning of an industrial society are fundamentally different under capitalism and socialism.

Industrial society is characterized by the predominance of accumulated labor over living labor. Accumulated labor takes the form of means of production (or capital): tools, machines, technologies, land, resources - and is fixed in the form of property (private, state, cooperative or public). Hence the importance of the institution of property, which is supported by the entire economic, political and legal system of a given society. Labor is mostly skilled and clearly specialized. Man himself functions as a carrier of such partial labor as a worker (or entrepreneur), and the remaining components of his being are separated from the production process. Developed commodity production means a high degree of division of labor and specialization of production functions. But such a division requires, as a necessary complement, either a market or a coherent social system of regulation.

A developed industrial society requires an appropriate political system; Normally, it's a democracy. To maintain it, adequate spiritual support is necessary in the form of a system of norms and values.

Law plays a crucial role in maintaining the existing order. The main principles of the legal order are: 1) the subject of the law and order - an isolated individual seeking private benefit through "fair competition"; 2) freedom and equality of opportunity provided by commodity-exchange relations; 3) recognition for each person of the right to life, liberty and property, which constitutes the relation of personal independence, and the guarantee of this independence is private property.

The most important values of a bourgeois industrial society are: 1) individualism: a person is the bearer of universally significant values and is responsible for them, there is a priority of the rights of the individual, his freedom, independence from the state (although this leads to anti-humanity, anti-sociality, anti-democratic); 2) rationalism: reason is the main judge in all conflicts; 3) mechanism: the world is represented by a mechanism, its god is a watchmaker, as a result, a mechanical model of the world arises; 4) naturalism: they try to explain the whole world by nature; 5) achievement and success, while morality is not ignored: the requirement of "fair play" according to the rules; 6) private property as the basis of all rights; 7) law as a universal regulator; 8) activity and work, the result of which is the mobility of social relations, technologies, spiritual life; 9) consumerism; 10) universalism: the values of the West are transferred to other cultures; 11) faith in progress and respect for science and technology.

A developed industrial society attaches particular importance to technology, up to technocracy. The reasons for this are: 1) in society, accumulated labor prevails over living labor; 2) without technology it is impossible to achieve the level of production and consumption achieved in other countries; 3) in conditions of national rivalry, more technologically advanced countries can dictate their will to less developed ones; 4) spiritual, historical and cultural factors.

The Renaissance introduced into consciousness the idea of man as an active creator, a world transformer, and the Enlightenment introduced the idea of the active role of the mind in comprehending reality and transforming it.

Social ties in bourgeois society are based on the social class stratification of society. There are deep contradictions between the division of labor, or the intensification of differences between different parts of society, and the need to maintain interaction and unity. This problem is solved by the market with a system of commodity-money circulation with the necessary additions of law, state and bureaucracy.

The rest of the social connections are subordinate to the main one, but they introduce specificity (religious, group, ethnic). Bourgeois society was influenced by Protestantism, evolved Catholicism, then secular regulators of economic ethics acted to an increasing extent.

The prestige of entrepreneurship was high, the moment of the national orientation of business activity was emphasized. As religion lost its importance as an integrating principle, the unity of society more and more developed as a national one based on civil law regulation.

In an industrial society, language was the main bearer of culture; for such a society, national cultures are significant, not world cultures. The growth of nations, nationalism led to two world wars. The growth of education led to democracy. Protestantism gave rise to a mass society: the need to read the Bible led to universal literacy and a common language. Education gave horizontal mobility and facilitated cultural convergence along the vertical. The main trend in culture was the development of education. In ideology, art, philosophy, there was a growth of realism instead of a mythological and religious worldview, illusions were overcome, utilitarianism grew (the symbol of success is money).

Sociocultural contradictions matured in bourgeois society, the most important of which were: 1) social and spiritual alienation; 2) colonialism; 3) antagonism of man and technology; 4) ecological crisis.

The result was a crisis of classical culture. It covered both the secular-enlightenment areas of artistic culture and the religious forms of spirituality. Even in its heyday, classical artistic culture remained the privilege of fairly educated people with a position in society. Education provided the key to the development and understanding of almost any kind of literature and art, personal efforts were needed for assimilation. For the broad masses, meanings, norms and orientations were supplied by the church. Folk culture was preserved in a greatly weakened state, as the remnants of the mythological and magical layer of the former culture.

At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries, classical culture is replaced by decadence. The art of decadence is characterized by pessimism and denial of the meaning of life, a statement of the futility of human aspirations, admiration of the motives of decay and death, attempts to find a form of escape from life in refined aesthetics. The cult of beauty was combined in decadence with immorality and extreme pessimism. 7.3.