h) unable to sleep.
It is important that the toy copes with all difficult situations;
3) result: children share their impressions of the classes, say what they remember most.
The use of this program in elementary school helps to increase the adaptive capacity of children, since many disturbing situations that prevent full adaptation are resolved. In addition, children are introduced to a whole range of constructive behaviors.
daytime strategies. Here, the formation of social interaction skills takes place, achievement motivation develops, and the child's self-confidence grows. Of course, participation in the program in itself does not guarantee the socially competent behavior of the child in society, however, the implementation of all the measures presented in the complex makes it possible to provide him with effective assistance in acquiring social skills and purposefully work to develop social competence.
I.Yu. GURSKAYA
Saratov State University, Department of Psychology E-mail: [email protected]
Methodological problems of studying the manifestation of aggressive behavior
The article discusses the theoretical and methodological foundations for studying the phenomenon of aggression as an actual problem of modern society. The main approaches of domestic and foreign authors to understanding the aggressive behavior of a person are outlined. The methodological problems of identifying and studying the indicators and characteristics of aggression, as well as the theoretical "diversity" of approaches in the study of this phenomenon are analyzed.
Keywords: aggressive behavior, aversive stimuli, aggressive reactions, instinct, cognitive processes, reliability and validity of the test method, "negative affect", social learning, frustration.
i.Y GURSKAYA Methodological Problems the Research of Aggressive Behavior
This article deals with the study of the aggression in modern society and states principal theoretical scientific attitudes about mechanisms and factors of aggressive behavior of a person. The methodological problems of the study indicators and general characteristics of the aggression are analyzed.
Key words: aggressive behavior, stimulus provoking aggression, aggressive reactions, instinct, informative processes, "negative affect", social skills, blocking of requirements.
The problem of aggressive behavior of the individual is increasingly being addressed in the context of studying the psychology of modern society. In conditions of social inequality, the policy of "individualism" there is a constant increase in tension and conflict between people. However, neither the satisfaction of all material needs, nor the elimination of social injustice, nor other positive changes in the structure of human society will be able to prevent the emergence and manifestation of aggressive impulses. The most that can be achieved is to temporarily prevent
similar manifestations or weaken their intensity. The reason for failures in the search for means of combating aggressive manifestations in human behavior remains the lack of an answer to the question of the nature of their occurrence. There is no clear evidence that there is aggressiveness - an innate or acquired quality. Research results tend to lean one way or the other. For example, the results of a survey of children abandoned by biological parents leading an antisocial or criminal life, and brought up in normal foster families, indicate that genetics
© I.Yu. Gurskaya, 2008
does play some role in human aggression (RA Prentki). However, RL. Dugdale, through a genealogical study of the Jukov family, showed that crime in a given family is not a product of a long chain of bad genes, but of the environment.
Thus, new patterns of aggressive behavior are acquired mainly through imitation models, these same models can serve as significant incentives for open aggression. However, today we cannot abandon the idea of innateness, the genotypic predisposition of a particular individual to aggressive behavior.
Until now, there is no consensus in understanding the phenomenon of aggression. Within the framework of classical psychoanalysis, it was assumed that aggression originates in the innate and self-directed death instinct (Thanatos); in fact, aggression is the same instinct, only projected outward and aimed at external objects.
A. Adler was also interested in the problem of aggressive behavior of people. It was he who recognized the feeling of inferiority in neurotics, as well as the problem of human aggressiveness. He correlated aggressiveness with the desire for power (male protest). Adler advanced the idea of aggressive instincts as a complement to the sexual instincts that were central to Freud's theory. Although Freud rejected Adler's idea, he later incorporated the concept of aggressive instincts into psychoanalytic theory.
Under aggression, according to E. Fromm, one should understand any actions that cause or imply the intention to cause damage to another person, group of people or animals, as well as causing damage to any inanimate object in general.
A. Bandura, being the founder of behavioral therapy, developed the theory of social learning of aggression, according to which aggression is a learned behavior in the process of socialization through the observation of an appropriate course of action and social reinforcement, i.e. there is a study of human behavior, oriented to the model. From Bandura's point of view, the analysis of aggressive behavior requires consideration of three points: ways of assimilating such actions; factors
provoking their manifestation; the conditions under which they are established.
Although social learning theory emphasizes its role through observation and direct experience in the learning of aggression, the contribution of biological factors is not denied. As with any motor activity, the performance of an aggressive action depends on basic neurophysiological mechanisms. Simply put, the nervous system is involved in the implementation of any action, including aggressive ones. However, the influence of these basic structures and processes is limited.
According to the frustration theory, an individual who has experienced frustration has an impulse to aggression. This theory, proposed by D. Dollard and his colleagues, is opposed to the two described above. Here, aggressive behavior is seen as a situational rather than an evolutionary process. The main provisions of this theory are as follows: frustration always leads to aggression in some form; aggression is always the result of frustration.
V. Kline believes that there are certain healthy traits in aggressiveness that are simply necessary for an active life. This is perseverance, initiative, perseverance in achieving goals, overcoming obstacles. These qualities are inherent in leaders.
R.S. Homans believes that a situation related to the desire for justice can cause aggression.
Approach A.A. Neana, K. Byutner considers some cases of aggressive manifestation as an adaptive property associated with getting rid of frustration and anxiety.
Thus, there are no unambiguous theories regarding the nature of aggression and aggressive behavior. It is obvious that all of them have the right to exist, we cannot refuse any of them. Hence the problem of studying the phenomenon of aggression arises. Until now, there is no complete picture in the description of the mechanisms of assimilation and consolidation of aggression, its determinants, individual and gender and age characteristics of aggressive behavior. This problem has been relevant for psychology for many years, since it can contribute to the development of techniques to reduce the level of aggression in modern society.
Certain characteristics have been identified that are relevant to aggression. In many cases, powerful determinants of aggression can be some stable characteristics of potential aggressors - those personality traits, individual attitudes and inclinations that remain unchanged regardless of the situation. As for the aggression of “normal” (i.e., not suffering from obvious psychopathology) personalities, such personality traits as fear of public disapproval, irritability, a tendency to see hostility in other people’s actions (hostility attribution bias) are usually considered as psychological characteristics that affect aggressive behavior. , the conviction of the individual that he remains the master of his own destiny in any situation, and the tendency to feel shame rather than guilt in many situations.
A. Nalchadzhyan believes that an adequate analysis of aggressive behavior and its motivation is possible if the following is taken into account: aggressiveness is a person's mental state. It is this meaning that is meant when a person is in an aggressive state. This is a temporary state that includes a range of emotional experiences - anger, hostility, and a desire or tendency to harm a person, which contributed to the individual being in such a mental state. In addition, aggressiveness can be considered as a personality trait, or rather, a complex of traits and tendencies that make up a sustainable behavioral strategy. And the third option is aggression as a certain type of behavior, an action or a set of actions directed at other objects.
Yu.B. Silmann argued that “cognition and arousal are closely related; they influence each other throughout the process of experiencing, bringing suffering experience and behavior. Thus, he quite clearly pointed out the specificity of the role of cognitive processes in strengthening and weakening emotional aggressive reactions and the role of excitation in the cognitive mediation of behavior. He emphasized that, regardless of the moment of its appearance (before or after the onset of nervous tension), comprehension
events are likely to influence the degree of arousal. If the person's mind tells him that the danger is real, or the individual is obsessed with the threat and contemplating his subsequent revenge, then he will retain a high level of arousal. On the other hand, the extinction of arousal is the most likely consequence of the fact that, having analyzed the situation, the person found extenuating circumstances or felt a decrease in danger.
Similarly, arousal can influence the process of cognition. At very high levels of arousal, reduced cognitive ability can lead to impulsive behavior. In the case of aggression, the impulsive action will be aggressive for the reason that the disintegration of the cognitive process will interfere with the inhibition of aggression. Thus, when failures occur in the cognitive process that provides the ability to suppress aggression, a person is likely to react impulsively (ie, aggressively). Under what Silmann describes as a "rather narrow range" of moderate arousal, the aforementioned complex cognitive processes will unfold in the direction of less aggressive responses.
Also, L. Berkowitz proposed his cognitive model of aggressive behavior. His original theory has been revised - in his later works, Berkowitz shifted the focus from messages to aggression to emotional and cognitive processes, thereby emphasizing that it is the latter that underlie the relationship between frustration and aggression. In accordance with his model of the formation of new cognitive connections, frustration or other aversive stimuli (for example, pain, unpleasant odors, heat) provoke aggressive reactions through the formation of negative affect. Berkowitz argued that "obstacles provoke aggression only to the extent that they create negative affect." Blocking the achievement of the goal, therefore, will not prompt aggression unless it is experienced as an unpleasant event. In turn, how the individual himself interprets the negative impact determines his response to this impact.
There is a certain set of methods to identify the nature of the ag-
Theoretical studies
aggressive manifestations in a person, factors contributing to this, characteristics of such behavior, etc. But the theoretical analysis of the scientific literature has shown that none of the theories of aggression has been fully proven, and the experiments on the study of this phenomenon described in the literature have conflicting results. This indicates the complexity of both the subject of research itself and the difficulties in selecting methods for studying it. No psychological property can be measured directly, only its intended manifestation in behavior can be measured.
An experimental approach to the study of the phenomenon of aggression allows the researcher to control the independent variables and thereby draw conclusions about causes and effects. Non-experimental techniques involve recording naturally occurring incidents; the application of these techniques is especially appropriate in cases where it is impossible to manipulate the independent variables of interest to the researcher for practical or ethical reasons.
Such a property as aggressiveness can only be judged indirectly - by the degree of its manifestation or recognition by the individual, by measuring it using a special scale or other psychological tool or technique designed to determine various degrees of aggressiveness in the form in which it is defined and understood by the developers of the measuring apparatus. . In the case of using personality questionnaires, the researcher invites respondents to answer questions about whether someone has a stable tendency to aggressive behavior or to assess the general level of someone's hostility. The most famous such questionnaires are the “Methodology for diagnosing indicators and forms of aggression” (V.M. Bass, M.E. Darki) and the “Anger Orientation Scale” (Ch.D. Spielberger, J. Johnson, etc.). Projective techniques that are used in the study of aggression include: TAT, Rorschach test, "Hand-Test" and "Drawing of a non-existent animal".
Also, for the study of aggressive behavior, the method of observation in field or laboratory studies is used. The main advantage of field research is the naturalness of the reactions of the subject, therefore
there may be greater objectivity. The laboratory experiment requires less time (it does not need to be spent waiting for the "natural" aggression emanating from the subject), allows you to better control the independent variables and observe the behavioral events (dependent variables) that occur while controlling or eliminating the influence of any other extraneous variables on them. variables. The control of variables is achieved using either an experimental design or statistical methods.
The indicators of reliability and validity of tests used in the study of aggressive personality manifestations are not fully understood, although attempts are being made to solve this problem. So, in 2007, a study was conducted on the problem of validation of the methods "Non-existent animal" and "Hand-Test" in relation to questionnaire methods: measuring the level of anxiety (S.E. Taylor), diagnosing self-esteem (C.D. Spielberger , Yu.L. Khanin) and diagnostics of indicators and forms of aggression (V.M. Bass, M.E. Darki) . As a result of the study, it was shown that the "Hand-Test" has a high and medium level of validity on the scales "Directiveness", "Fear", "Communication", "Dependency", "Exhibitionism" and "Passive Impersonal"; in the “Drawing of a non-existent animal” test, such a scale was the “Anxiety” scale. Thus, the scales listed above can serve as indicators of aggressiveness when using these tests. In general, the study showed that it is more effective to use the "Hand-Test" when studying aggression.
However, when using psychometrics, the researcher faces at least two serious problems: a) the crudeness of even the most advanced and reliable tools available for measuring the independent and dependent variables, and b) the fact that any psychological measurement is not direct, but indirect.
We can make a general conclusion that neither theoretical nor research potential in the study of the problem of aggressive behavior is far from being exhausted. Further studies of this phenomenon are needed in order to remove contradictions and make additions to the already put forward theoretical positions. Successfully put forward hypothesis or
L.E. Tarasov. The impact of the evaluation activities of university teachers
the assumption is worth exploring. Most psychological theories rely on empirical hypothesis testing,
but to date there is no psychological theory that reaches the level of scientific law.
Bibliographic list
1. Rean A.A. Aggression and aggressiveness of the personality // Psychol. magazine 1996. V. 17. No. 5. S. 3-18.
2. Fromm E. Anatomy of human destructiveness. M., 1998.
3. Bandura A., Walters R. Teenage aggression. Studying the influence of upbringing and family relationships. M., 2000.
4. Baron R., Richardson D. Aggression. SPb., 2001.
5. Rumyantseva T.G. The concept of aggressiveness in modern foreign psychology // Vopr. psychology. 1991. No. 1. S. 81-88.
6. Nalchadzhyan A.A. Human aggressiveness. SPb., 2007.
7. BerkovitsL. What is aggression. M., 2002.
8. Berkowitz L. Aggression. Causes, consequences and control. SPb., 2001.
9. BassA. Diagnostics of aggression // Fundamentals of psychodiagnostics. M., 1996.
UDC 159.9:37.015.3
L.E. TARASOVA
Pedagogical Institute of Saratov State University, Department of Educational Psychology E-mail: [email protected]
The Influence of Evaluation Activities of University Teachers on the Formation of Students' Self-Esteem
The subject of this article is the problem of finding and implementing innovative methods of evaluation activities in the practice of university teachers, which positively influence the formation of an adequate self-assessment of students' educational work.
Keywords: evaluation function of the teacher, content of the evaluation act, mechanisms of the evaluation act, evaluation criteria, technology of different levels of differentiation, self-assessment.
Influence of Estimated Activity of High School Teachers on Formation of a Self-estimation of Students
Consideration subject in this article is the problem of search and implementation of innovative ways of estimated activity in practice of the high school teachers positively influencing formation of an adequate self-estimation of educational work of students.
Key words: estimated function of the teacher, maintenance of the estimated certificate, mechanisms of the estimated certificate, criteria of an estimation, technology of differentiation, self-estimation.
Any teacher, including higher education, is faced with the need to solve a whole range of pedagogical tasks: analytical-reflexive, constructive-prognostic, organizational-activity, evaluative-informational, correctional-regulating.
At all stages of school development, with the strengthening of democratic principles in its organization, the question of finding effective ways to implement the teacher's evaluation function was put forward in the first place, since this is one of the
the most important aspects of pedagogical work, requiring a priority solution in providing individually-oriented learning.
It is impossible to organize any activity, including educational and cognitive, without evaluation, since it is one of the components of the activity, its regulator, and an indicator of performance. But it is also obvious that the preservation of the former system of evaluation of educational work, within which there is practically no accounting
© L.E. Tarasova, 2008
The specificity of human activity lies in the fact that it occurs in interaction with other people or objects produced by them. One of the most important characteristics of actions and deeds that determine the established relationships between people, as well as the effectiveness of individual personal development, is aggressiveness.
Aggressiveness is a stable personality trait, readiness for aggressive behavior. Its levels are determined both by learning in the process of socialization and by orientation towards cultural and social norms, the most important of which are the norms of social responsibility and the norms of retribution for acts of aggression. An important role also belongs to such situational variables: the interpretation of the intentions of others, the possibility of obtaining feedback, the provocative influence of weapons.
Aggressiveness is one of the innate attitudes rooted in the sadistic phase of the libido. It is expressed in the desire for offensive or violent actions aimed at causing damage or destroying the object of the offensive.
One of the manifestations of the aggressiveness of a person is aggression, which we consider as a behavior or action aimed at causing physical or mental harm.
Aggression is any form of behavior aimed at insulting or harming another living being who does not want such treatment. This definition includes the following provisions:
aggression always implies deliberate, purposeful harm to the victim;
only such behavior that implies causing harm or damage to living organisms can be considered as aggression;
victims must be motivated to avoid such treatment.
The study of human aggressiveness is especially important for the following reasons: if a person’s aggressiveness is rooted in his natural instincts, then it will not be amenable to psychotherapy and can either be suppressed or relegated to a neutral object, or a person’s aggressive behavior is due to the social environment and upbringing, and then it can be quite easily changed to a more socially acceptable one by eliminating traumatic factors and gaps in education. In modern science, on the one hand, there are biological data on the existence of mechanisms involved in aggressive behavior, and on the other hand, research results indicate the primary role of factors in the development of aggressiveness. Attempts to solve this problem were made at different times by a number of prominent scientists representing various areas of psychological science.
The earliest, and perhaps best known, theoretical proposition relating to aggression is that the behavior is predominantly instinctive in nature. According to this approach, aggression arises because human feelings are genetically or constitutionally programmed for such actions. Aggression as an instinctive behavior was considered in the psychoanalytic approach.
Z. Freud initially paid relatively little attention to the phenomenon of aggression, considering sexuality (libido) and the instinct of self-preservation to be the main and predominant forces in man. However, in the 1920s, he completely abandoned these ideas. In the work "I and It", as well as in all subsequent works, he puts forward a new dichotomous pair: the drive to life (Eros) and the drive to death (Thanatos). The death instinct is directed against the living organism itself and therefore is an instinct of either self-destruction or the destruction of another individual (in the case of outward direction). From the death drive hypothesis, it follows that aggressiveness is essentially not a reaction to irritation, but is a kind of impulse constantly present in the body, due to the very nature of man. The contradiction between the life instinct and the death instinct confronts a person with a tragic alternative: if he cannot decide to become aggressive, to give vent to his hostility, then he remains ill. Freud explicitly pointed out that restraint of aggressiveness is generally harmful and leads to illness. However, being a humanist, Freud could not agree with such pessimistic conclusions of his own theoretical constructions. He tried to justify the transformation of the aggressive instinct into conscience: “Aggression is introjected, transferred inside, returns to where it originated, and is directed against one’s own “I”. There it is intercepted by that part of the "I", which opposes the rest of the parts as "Super-I", and now, in the form of conscience, uses against the "I" the same readiness for aggression, which the "I" would willingly satisfy on other individuals alien to it. The tension between the intensified "Super-I" and the "I" subordinate to it, we call the consciousness of guilt, which manifests itself as a need for punishment. However, it is not clear why the transformation of aggressiveness into a self-punishing conscience can solve the problem. Indeed, according to Freud's theory, the conscience should be as cruel as the death instinct.
The theory of conscience as a manifestation of the death instinct is not Freud's only attempt to soften the understanding of the tragic alternative. He also tried to substantiate the possibility of redirecting the instinct of aggressiveness to objects that make it possible to satisfy vital needs and dominate nature. However, in this case, we are faced with a creative instinct - the instinct of life, rather than with sublimated aggressiveness.
Freud was never able to solve the important question for him about the relative strength of instincts. Now the problem is being solved experimentally. It has been shown that in subjects with insulin coma, aggression (defensive instinct) fades later than sexual and food ones.
Freud's theory is self-contradictory for the reason that the death instinct does not correspond to Freud's own idea of instincts. There is no special zone in the body from which it flows, as is the case with libido. Moreover, the slow extinction of life is not at all identical with destructiveness. Thus, the death instinct has no biological basis and does not meet the definition of an instinct in general. As a result, many psychoanalysts never accepted the new theory, and some interpreted it in their own way, often quite loosely. However, this was the first coherent theory that simultaneously considered the influence on human aggressiveness of internal subconscious drives in the form of the death instinct, and the influence of the social environment (culture, upbringing, family environment) through the formation of the "Super-I".
The successor of the ideas of Z. Freud was his daughter A. Freud, who paid great attention to the problems of children's aggressiveness. On the basis of the richest clinical material, A. Freud concretized the main provisions of classical psychoanalysis on child development, enriching them with the psychoanalytic doctrine of the consciousness or, in the terminology of A. Freud, the psychological "I" of the child.
A. Freud describes various forms of children's aggressiveness. So, for the smallest children, oral aggressiveness is characteristic. At this age, a simple motor-affective process of withdrawal of instinctive urges is observed. Such manifestations of aggressiveness disappear on their own in the process of the maturation of the child's consciousness and the appearance of other possibilities of withdrawal, in particular, speech.
A surge of aggressiveness is observed at the anal-sadistic stage of development. Aggression itself is then "bound" and subdued through fusion with libido, limited displacement and sublimation. The intervention of educational measures in the natural withdrawal of aggressiveness can interfere with this process or overturn it. If hatred or aggression against the outside world cannot manifest itself in full, they are directed back to the child’s own body and objects directly accessible to him: the child beats his head against the wall, spoils furniture, self-harm is often observed. In this case, the child should be given the opportunity to direct aggression towards an external target (old unnecessary things, toys, etc.).
In the next phallic stage of development, violent aggressiveness and exaggeration of male behavior can be expressed in the form of fits of rage, which are actually attacks of fear, when phobic children are prevented from carrying out their defensive actions. Such states can be eliminated in two ways: either by avoiding states that cause fear, or through analytical work (finding, interpreting and resolving the cause of fear).
A. Freud argues that aggressiveness, if it enters into a normal relationship with libido, affects the socialization of the child not restrainingly, but encouragingly. Only where there is no confusion between libido and aggressiveness, or where they later separate, does aggressiveness, as pure aggressiveness and antisocial tendency, become a menace to social behaviour. Its concept is considered in detail in the work of Ya. L. Obukhov.
The child's aggressive actions arising in early childhood (blows, fits of rage, outbursts of anger and rage, unexpected manifestations of sudden obstinacy and obsession) attracted the attention of researchers in child development D. B. Elkonin, E. I. Rogov.
Particularly noteworthy is the work of the famous psychoanalyst and philosopher E. Fromm "Anatomy of human destructiveness", which is devoted to the study of the origins of human aggressiveness. The destructive in man is philosophically rethought by the author as the problem of evil in the individual, in society, in history, in the life of the human race.
E. Fromm distinguishes in humans “two completely different types of aggression. The first type, common to both humans and all animals, is a phylogenetically embedded impulse to attack (or to flee) in a situation where life is threatened. This defensive, "benign" aggression serves the cause of the survival of the individual and the species; it has biological forms of manifestation and fades as soon as the danger disappears. Another species is represented by "malignant" aggression - this is destructiveness and cruelty, which are peculiar only to humans and are absent in other mammals; it has no phylogenetic program, no biological adaptation, and no purpose.” If benign aggression is based on instinctive attraction, then “destructiveness and cruelty are not instinctive drives, but passions that are rooted in the integral structure of human existence.” E. Fromm emphasizes that human passions are rooted in character and correspond to the existential needs of a person, which are determined specific features of its existence. Instinct is a response to physiological needs.
However, even benign human defensive aggression differs from that of an animal. E. Fromm sees the reason for this in the specific conditions of human existence, namely:
1) the animal perceives as a threat only a clear danger that exists at the moment, and a person with the gift of foresight and imagination reacts not only to a momentary threat, but also to a possible danger in the future, to his own idea of the danger of a threat, i.e. most often a person gives out an aggressive reaction to his own forecast;
2) a person not only has the ability to foresee a real danger in the future, but he also allows himself to be persuaded, allows himself to be manipulated, led, convinced; he is ready to see danger where there really is none; only a person can be called defensive aggression by the method of "brainwashing";
3) the additional strengthening of the defensive aggression of man in comparison with the animal is due to the fact that the sphere of vital interests in him is much wider than that of the beast; for survival, a person needs not only physical, but also mental conditions, namely, the preservation of his value orientation; if a person discovers ideas that call into question his value orientations, he will react to these ideas as a threat to his vital interests.
Fromm considers the need for freedom to be the most important vital interest of a person and considers it as a biological reaction of the human body. By freedom he does not mean the absence of any restrictions; it's all about who benefits from this restriction - some one person or institution, or whether it is necessary for the growth and development of the very structure of the personality. The danger of losing one's freedom evokes powerful defensive aggression.
The modern ideas of the psychoanalytic approach include the work of the American psychologist G. Parens "Aggression of our children". In his work, he examines in detail the problem of aggressiveness in children. G. Parens identifies two forms of child aggression. Non-destructive, i.e. persistent, non-hostile self-protective behavior aimed at achieving a goal and training. This form is caused by innate mechanisms that serve to adapt to the environment, to satisfy desires. These mechanisms are present and functioning from birth.
Another form of aggression is hostile destructiveness, i.e. vicious, hurtful behavior. Hostile destructiveness, unlike non-destructive aggression, does not appear immediately after birth. However, G. Parens believes that the mechanism of its mobilization exists from the very beginning of a child's life. Hostile destructiveness is caused and activated as a result of strong unpleasant experiences (excessive pain or distress). From the point of view of Parens, the main reason for the emergence of hostility at an early age, and then its transition into hatred, anger, rage, is "experiencing excessive displeasure." Prevention of such experiences is a direct way to reduce the level of hostility in the child's behavior.
The frustration theory of aggression was published in 1939 by a group of psychologists at Yale University in the USA, headed by D. Dollard, and marked the beginning of intensive experimental studies of aggression. According to this theory, the occurrence of aggressive behavior is always due to the presence of frustration, and vice versa, the presence of frustration always entails some form of aggressiveness.
Aggression within the framework of this theory is defined as “an act whose purpose is to harm some person or object”, and frustration as “a condition that occurs when purposeful reactions are interfered with”.
The statement about the unambiguous relationship between aggression and frustration caused criticism, and already in 1941, one of the co-authors of the theory, N. Miller, published a slightly modified concept, making the assumption that frustration can cause many different reactions and that aggressiveness is only one of them. Instead of operational defined aggression, he introduced the concept of "aggression provocation", depending on the force by which aggression could be either observable or not.
A significant contribution to the development of the theory of frustration was made by the works of S. Rosenzweig.
In the concept of S. Rosenzweig, the concept of frustration is developed in the most detail: the concept of frustration tolerance (resistance to frustrators, i.e., causes that cause frustration) and the substantive aspects of a person’s reaction in conditions of frustration, namely, the direction of aggression (extra-, intra- , impunity reactions) and the type of reaction (with fixation on an obstacle, on ego-defense, on satisfaction of needs).
The frustration theory of aggression became widespread because it was the only general theory of aggression and violence. However, the exclusive focus on frustration led to the fact that a whole class of noxious stimuli was excluded from consideration, along with the concept of aggression as an instrumental reaction. In fact, frustration is just one of many causes of aggressiveness. At the same time, a number of works appeared showing that the result of frustration can be not only aggression, but also a regression of behavior, or a fixed stereotypical non-aggressive behavior.
L. Berkowitz should be noted among modern researchers of aggressive behavior who continue to develop the frustration-aggressive hypothesis. He introduced new intermediate variables, one of which related to motivation, and the other to the direction of behavior, namely, anger - emotional arousal in response to frustration (as an incentive component) and trigger stimuli (key signs triggering or causing a reaction). Anger arises when the achievement of the goals to which the action of the subject is directed is blocked from the outside. However, it does not in itself lead to behavior determined by this type of drive. For this behavior to be realized, triggering stimuli adequate to it are necessary, and they will become adequate only in the case of a direct or indirect (for example, established through reflection) connection with the source of anger, i.e. with the cause of frustration. Later, L. Berkowitz expanded and modified his concept of the trigger mechanism. The triggering stimulus has ceased to be a necessary condition for the transition from anger to aggression. Further, it is allowed to induce aggression by stimuli associated with the reinforcing consequences of aggressive actions, in other words, as an additional support for his concept, L. Berkowitz uses the paradigm of instrumental conditioning. In addition, it is assumed that the appearance of aggression-relevant key stimuli can increase the intensity of an aggressive action, for example, a weapon being noticed in a situation perceived by a person as provocative, the so-called weapon effect.
Thus, the theory of social learning L. Berkowitz is reduced to three main provisions:
frustration is not necessarily realized in aggressive actions, but it stimulates readiness for them;
even when ready, aggression does not arise without proper conditions;
getting out of a frustrating situation with the help of aggressive actions brings up in the individual the habit of such actions.
In his later works (1983, 1988, 1989), Berkowitz revised his original theory, shifting the focus from aggression to emotional and cognitive processes, thereby emphasizing that they underlie the relationship between frustration and aggression. In accordance with his model of the formation of new cognitive connections, frustration or other aversive stimuli (for example, pain, unpleasant odors, heat) provoke aggressive reactions through the formation of negative affect. He argued that obstacles provoke aggression only to the extent that they create a negative effect. Blocking the achievement of the goal, therefore, will not arouse aggression, unless it is experienced as an unpleasant event. In turn, how the individual himself interprets the negative impact determines his response to this impact. If, for example, a person interprets an unpleasant emotional experience as anger, then he is likely to show aggressive tendencies, and if it is as fear, then most likely he will have a desire to flee.
One of the most famous representatives of the behavioral approach in the study of aggressive behavior is A. Bass. He defines frustration as blocking the process of instrumental behavior and introduces the concept of an attack - an act that delivers hostile stimuli to the body. In this case, the attack causes a strong aggressive reaction, and frustration - a weak one.
A. Bass pointed out four factors on which the strength of aggressive habits depends:
frequency and intensity of cases in which the individual was attacked, frustrated, annoyed. Individuals who have received a lot of angry stimuli are more likely to react aggressively than those who have received fewer.
frequent success with aggression leads to strong attacking habits; success can be internal (a sharp decrease in anger) and external (removal of an obstacle or achievement of a reward), the developed tendency to attack can make it impossible for the individual to distinguish between situations that provoke and do not provoke aggression;
cultural and subcultural norms established by a person can ensure the development of aggressiveness in him;
temperament, namely, its components such as impulsivity, intensity of reactions, level of activity and independence.
A. Bass believes that independence is related to the desire, self-respect and protection from group pressure. For such individuals, there are more stimuli in their daily interactions. An important component of independence is the tendency to disobedience.
Another well-known representative of behaviorism is A. Bandura. His approach to the problem of aggressiveness focuses more on the paradigm of instrumental conditioning, with a central place he assigns to learning by observing the sample. Bandura believes that if the child's educators (parents, teachers) are aggressive, then the child, imitating them, will become aggressive. If the model is punished for aggressiveness, this will reduce the manifestations of aggressiveness in the child. Thus, aggressiveness is a product of learning. It develops, is maintained or decreases as a result of observing scenes of aggression and taking into account its visible consequences for the aggressive person.
The emotion of anger is not, according to A. Bandura, neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for aggression. Anger is, from his point of view, just a state of excitement. He believes that any emotional arousal coming from a negatively perceived stimulation (for example, heat, noise, etc.) can influence the intensity of aggressive actions, if only the action takes the path of aggression at all. The course of such an action is not associated with a simple triggering of conditioned reactions that depend on the anticipated consequences of possible actions, and no state of emotional excitement, no incentive component is necessary for him. Bandura's theoretical position is a synthesis of social learning theory and cognitive theories of motivation. First of all, behavior is determined by the attractiveness of the anticipated consequences of actions. Such decisive consequences include not only reinforcement from other people, but also self-reinforcement, which depends on compliance with internally binding standards of behavior for the individual. Therefore, with the same features of the situation, instead of aggression, an action of a completely different type can be chosen, for example, submission, achievement, retreat, constructive solution of the problem, etc. .
The psychological difficulty of eliminating aggressive actions lies in the fact that a person who behaves in this way easily finds many reasonable justifications for his behavior, completely or partially relieving himself of guilt. A. Bandura singled out the following typical ways for the aggressors themselves to justify their actions:
comparison of one's own aggressive act with the personality flaws or actions of a person who has become a victim of aggression in order to prove that, in comparison with them, the actions committed against him do not seem as terrible as they seem at first glance;
justification of aggression against another person by any ideological, religious or other considerations, for example, by the fact that it is committed from noble goals;
denial of personal responsibility for the committed aggressive act;
removal of part of the responsibility for aggression by referring to external circumstances or the fact that this action was committed with other people, under their pressure or under the influence of circumstances, for example, the need to fulfill someone's order;
"dehumanizing" the victim by proving that he supposedly deserves such treatment;
gradual mitigation by the aggressor of his guilt by finding new arguments and explanations that justify his actions.
In favor of the concept of social learning, according to A.A. Rean says that the most pronounced differences between aggressive and non-aggressive children are found not in the preference for aggressive alternatives, but in the ignorance of constructive solutions.
The humanistic direction in psychology, presented in the works of K. Rogers, A. Maslow, V. Frankl and others, explores and explains the manifestations of aggression in accordance with its main provisions.
A. Maslow in his monograph "Motivation and Personality" gave a detailed analysis of the problem of whether aggressiveness is instinctive. Based on the data of zoopsychology, child psychology and anthropology, he came to the conclusion that theories of the predestination of destructiveness (and hence aggressiveness) by natural instinct are unfounded. Maslow argued that it is not instinct, but instinctoid, i.e. like instinct, has some natural basis.
K. Rogers, considering a person as initially constructive, believes that aggression and violence are forced responses of an individual to limit his freedom, choice. This is the body's response to an experience that was perceived as threatening, inconsistent with the person's idea of \u200b\u200bhimself. K. Rogers writes: “I know that because of defensive reactions and fear, people can behave cruelly, immaturely, very destructively, antisocially, hurt. However, my experience with them inspires me and gives me strength, as I am constantly convinced of the positive direction of their development at a deep level, just like all of us.
The main theme of humanistic psychology is the use of inner experience to explore and change the personality. The desire for actualization is fundamental in human behavior. Optimally actualized, a person fully and richly lives at every moment of his life. According to K. Rogers, from birth, a person feels the need to accept himself, which means, of course, a positive attitude towards him, recognition of his individuality. Moreover, unconditional acceptance of a person is necessary, both by others and by himself. Unconditional self-acceptance means accepting all your qualities as normal, regardless of the assessment of others. If a person is focused only on the opinions of others, he experiences tension, anxiety, anxiety about such assessments. He seeks to justify their expectations and demands, so he is no longer free, limited in his ability to choose actions. Thus, aggression is the result of a conflict between the person's own values and external values (congruence violation). K. Rogers believes: “If we are able to free the individual from defensive reactions, open his perception, both to a wide range of his own needs, and to the requirements of the environment and society, we can believe that his subsequent actions will be positive, creative, moving him forward . There is no need to say who will socialize him, since one of his own very deep needs is the need for relationships with others, for communication. As he becomes more and more himself, he will be socialized to a greater extent - in accordance with reality. There is no need to talk about who should check his aggressive impulses, for as he is open to all his impulses, his needs for receiving and giving love will be as strong as his impulse to hit or grab for himself. He will be aggressive in situations where aggression really needs to be used, but he will not have an irresistibly growing need for aggression.
Manifestations of aggression are different: from direct physical impact (use of force) of verbal abuse and intimidation of the opponent to indirect attempts to exercise forced control of the behavior of another person by a known manifestation of aggression, turning into a painful state that is not amenable to socialization. But there are also such acts and actions that are interpreted by some participants in a group conflict as a manifestation of aggression, and by others as activity, perseverance and consistency in achieving goals.
First of all, it is necessary to distinguish between intentional and unintentional aggression. A striking example of unintentional aggression is the accidental injury of a person when checking a weapon or an involuntary shot.
Based on whether aggression is a reaction to frustration or not, one should distinguish between reactive and hostile (or spontaneous) aggression. If the first is a response to hostility, then the second arises from the desire to hinder, harm someone, treat someone unfairly, offend someone.
Reactive aggression is observed in two manifestations: as expressive and impulsive (affective). Expressive aggression is an involuntary outburst of anger and rage, undirected and quickly ending, and the source of the disturbance is not necessarily attacked. A typical example is the outbursts of stubbornness of young children. When the action is not under the control of the subject and proceeds according to the type of affect, one speaks of impulsive aggression.
It is very important to distinguish the so-called instrumental aggression from the listed forms of aggression. It is always aimed at achieving a goal of a neutral nature, while aggression itself is used only as a means to achieve this goal (for example, in the case of blackmail, education through punishment, a shot at a bandit who has taken hostages, etc.). In turn, instrumental aggression is divided into either individually or socially motivated. One can also speak of selfish and disinterested, antisocial and prosocial aggression. Examples are the behavior of people in cases related to a lost wallet. Perhaps a physical collision of a person with another, who turned out to be a dishonest person who found a wallet, in order to return the wallet to the owner (pro-social instrumental aggression). In the second case, he takes the wallet and keeps it for himself (anti-social instrumental aggression). In the third, he hits the person who embezzled the wallet, prompted by moral indignation (hostile aggression). This division is not objective and reflects the point of view of the acting subject, his victim or an outside observer. Moreover, what would seem anti-social to the victim or an outside observer, the subject of the action can consider pro-social.
In addition, other subdivisions of aggression are also possible, for example, one can speak of open or disguised, intrahostile or extrahostile aggression.
In addition to the presented classification, the classification of categories of aggression proposed by A. Bass is often used. In his opinion, aggressive actions can be described on the basis of three scales: physical - verbal; active - passive and direct - indirect. Their combination gives eight possible categories under which most aggressive actions fall.
1. Physical aggression - the use of physical force against another person.
2. Indirect aggression - this term is understood as both aggression, which is directed in a roundabout way to another person (gossip, malicious jokes), and aggression, which is not directed at anyone - explosions of rage, manifested in screaming, stamping feet, beating with fists on the table. These explosions are characterized by non-direction and disorder.
3. Tendency to irritation - readiness for manifestation at the slightest excitation of irascibility, harshness, rudeness.
4. Negativism - an oppositional measure of behavior, usually directed against authority or leadership; this behavior can grow from passive resistance to active struggle against established laws and customs.
5. Resentment - envy and hatred of others, due to a feeling of bitterness, anger at the whole world for real or imaginary suffering.
6. Suspicion - distrust and caution towards people, based on the belief that others intend to cause harm.
7. Verbal aggression - the expression of negative feelings both through the form (quarrel, scream, squeal) and through the content of verbal responses (threat, curse, swearing).
E. Fromm developed his own classification of forms of aggression. He divides all types of aggressive behavior into two types: benign aggression and malignant or destructiveness.
Benign aggression, in turn, is divided into pseudo-aggression and defensive aggression. By pseudo-aggression, Fromm means "actions that may result in damage, but which were not preceded by evil intentions."
This includes intentional aggression, playful aggression, and aggression as self-affirmation. Unintentional aggression has already been discussed above. Game aggression is necessary in training for mastery, dexterity and speed of reactions. It has no destructive purpose and no negative motivations. Aggression as self-affirmation is the most important type of pseudo-aggression. It is aimed at achieving the goal and is necessary in any professional activity. Without it, creative activity is impossible. It has been established that the one who can freely realize his aggression of self-affirmation generally behaves less hostile than the one who lacks this quality of purposeful offensiveness.
Defensive aggression includes the instrumental, conformist, defense of repressed drives and fantasies, the response to the threat of narcissism, and the defense of freedom.
E. Fromm divides malignant aggression or destructiveness into apparent destructiveness, spontaneous destructiveness and destructive character.
The apparent destructiveness is not due to the passion for destruction, although it leads to destructive actions. This includes religious ritual bloodshed, the true meaning of which is the strengthening of life as a result of cult or magical actions.
Spontaneous forms of destructiveness are vengeance, ecstatic destructiveness, and worship of destructiveness.
Introduction
1.1 The concepts of aggression and aggressiveness in psychology
1.3 Causes of aggressive behavior
2.2 Adolescent aggressiveness
Conclusion
Literature
Introduction
The problem of aggressiveness is relevant for our society. The tense, unstable social, economic, environmental situation that has developed in our country, Ukraine, causes the growth of various deviations in the personal development and behavior of people. Of particular concern is anxiety, cynicism, cruelty and the growth of aggressiveness in children. The growth of aggressive tendencies reflects one of the social problems of our society.
The relevance of this work lies in the fact that aggressiveness plays an important role in the personality of every teenager. A certain level of aggression is normally characteristic of all children and is necessary for the optimal adaptation of a person to reality. However, the presence of aggression as a stable formation is evidence of violations in personal development. It interferes with normal activities, full communication.
Since the middle of the last century, active research has been carried out on the causes of aggressive behavior in adolescents. At the same time, the fact of an increase in the number of crimes against a person that entails serious bodily harm is alarming. Cases of violent group fights among teenagers have become more frequent.
The interest that has arisen in recent years in the study of aggressiveness, including adolescent aggression, is a certain reaction of the scientific community (including the psychological one) to the growth of conflicts and violence that humanity is facing today (G.M. Andreeva, S. Belicheva, R. Baron, S. V. Enikopolov, V. V. Znakov, N. D. Levitov, A. A. Rean, D. Richardson, E. Fromm, H. Heckhausen, etc.). However, a multifaceted psychological study of the problem of aggressiveness in domestic psychology, in contrast to Western psychology (Allport; Bandura A., 1950; Walter R., 1959; Berkowits Z., 1962; Buss A., 1961; Lorens K., 1967; Richard C. , Walters R., Murray Braun, 1948; Kaufmann, 1965), in fact, is just beginning, although certain issues of studying tolerance (A. G. Asmolov et al.) and aggression (aggressive behavior) attracted the attention of many authors, being reflected in a number of works (by G.M. Andreeva, V.V. Znakov, S.V. Enikopolov, L.P. Kolchin, N.D. Levitov, E.V. Romanin, S.E. Roshchin, T.G. Rumyantseva, A.A. Reana, E.E. Kopchenova, N.I. Korytchenkova, L.M. Chepeleva, T.V. Slotina and others), including those who considered the features of delinquent behavior of adolescents (M.A. Alemaskin, S.A. Belicheva, G.M. Minkovsky, I.A. Nevsky and others).
So, the problem of aggression in the modern world, especially in Ukrainian conditions of breaking established values and traditions and forming new ones, is extremely relevant, both from the point of view of science and from the standpoint of social practice.
The importance and relevance of the problem under consideration, the insufficient level of its development in science aroused interest in the study and determined the choice of the topic of the course work.
Targetwork - to study the features of the manifestation of aggressiveness in adolescent children.
An object -aggressive behavior.
Itemresearches - psychological features of aggressive behavior of teenagers.
In accordance with the purpose of the work, the following tasks:
1.To study the concept of aggression and aggressive behavior in domestic and foreign psychology.
2.To reveal the main features of adolescence and their influence on the appearance of aggressive behavior in adolescents.
.To define methods of diagnostics and correction of aggressive behavior of teenagers.
1. Theoretical aspects of the problem of aggressiveness
.1 The concepts of aggression and aggressiveness in psychology
In everyday life, aggression is perceived by people as a purely negative manifestation of human nature. The idea of this phenomenon and its description in clinical psychology and psychiatry also has a negative connotation. It includes destruction, damage, physical and moral suffering. According to the accepted formulations, aggression is actions and statements aimed at causing harm, mental and physical pain to another being. Meanwhile, the very word "aggression" (from the Greek "aggredy") means "to move forward", "to approach". As in any fundamental concept, opposing tendencies are connected here. After all, one can “approach” both with the aim of establishing contact, and with any hostile purpose. This feature of aggression, its contradictory facets, was pointed out by many researchers (K. Menninger, R. May, and others).
For example, Bender L. understands aggression as strong activity, the desire for self-affirmation, Delgado H. believes that aggression is acts of hostility, attacks, destruction, that is, actions that harm another person or object. Human aggressiveness is a behavioral response characterized by the exercise of force in an attempt to harm or damage an individual or society, Wilson interprets aggression as a physical action or threat of such action on the part of one individual that reduces the freedom or genetic fitness of another individual.
E. Fromm defines aggression more broadly - as damage not only to a person or animal, but also to any inanimate object.
A. Bass gives the following definition of aggression: aggression is any behavior that threatens or harms others. Some authors note that in order for certain actions to be qualified as aggression, they must include the intention of insulting or insulting, and not just lead to such consequences.
E.V. Zmanovskaya calls aggression any tendency (desire) that manifests itself in real behavior or even in fantasizing, with the aim of subordinating others to itself, or dominating them. Such a definition of aggression excludes a number of fairly common aggressive manifestations, in particular, such as auto-aggression, aggression directed at inanimate objects, etc.
Despite the differences in the definition of the concept of aggression by different authors, the idea of causing damage (harm) to another subject is almost always present. As A.A. Rean, harm (damage) to a person can also be caused by causing harm to any inanimate object, on the state of which the physical or psychological well-being of a person depends.
In the psychological literature, the concepts of aggression and aggressiveness are often confused. By definition, E.P. Ilyin, aggressiveness is a personality trait that reflects a tendency to react aggressively when a frustrating and conflict situation arises. Aggressive action is a manifestation of aggressiveness as a situational reaction. If aggressive actions are periodically repeated, then in this case we should talk about aggressive behavior. Aggression is the behavior of a person in conflict and frustrating situations.
According to A.A. Reana, aggressiveness is a readiness for aggressive actions against another, which is provided (prepared) by the willingness of the individual to perceive and interpret the behavior of the other in an appropriate way. Aggressiveness as a personality trait is included in the group of such qualities as hostility, resentment, malevolence, etc. In this regard, A.A. Rean singles out potentially aggressive perception and potentially aggressive interpretation as a stable personal feature of world perception and worldview.
From the point of view of psychophysiology, aggressive behavior is a complex interaction of various parts of the nervous system, neurotransmitters, hormones, external stimuli and learned reactions.
A number of American researchers note that in order to judge the aggressiveness of an act, it is necessary to know its motives and how it is experienced.
Alfimova M.V. and Trubnikov V.I. note that aggression is often associated with negative emotions, motives, and even negative attitudes. All these factors play an important role in behavior, but their presence is not a necessary condition for aggressive actions. Aggression can unfold both in a state of complete composure and extremely emotional excitement. It is also not at all necessary that the aggressors hate those who are targeted by their actions. Many cause suffering to people who are treated more positively than negatively. Aggression takes place if the result of actions is any negative consequences.
But not all authors talk about the negative consequences of aggressive behavior, for example, V. Kline believes that aggressiveness has certain healthy features that are simply necessary for an active life. This is perseverance, initiative, perseverance in achieving goals, overcoming obstacles. These qualities are inherent in leaders.
Rean A.A., Byutner K. and others consider some cases of aggressive manifestation as an adaptive property associated with getting rid of frustration and anxiety.
According to E. Fromm's definition, in addition to being destructive, aggression also performs an adaptive function, i.e. is of good quality. It contributes to the maintenance of life and is a response to a threat to vital needs. K. Lorenz considers aggression an important element of evolutionary development.
E Fromm proposed to consider two types of aggressive behavior:
benign aggression
Malignant aggression.
E Fromm believes that a person is psychologically cultured only to the extent that he is able to control the elemental principle in himself. If the control mechanisms are weakened, then a person is prone to the manifestation of malignant aggression, which can be considered synonymous with destructiveness and cruelty.
Like Fromm, psychologists now distinguish two types of aggression and put approximately the same meaning into them:
constructive aggression (open manifestations of aggressive urges, realized in a socially acceptable form, in the presence of appropriate behavioral skills and stereotypes of emotional response, openness to social experience and the possibility of self-regulation and behavior correction);
destructive aggression (a direct manifestation of aggressiveness associated with a violation of moral and ethical standards, containing elements of a delinquent or criminal command with insufficient consideration of the requirements of reality and reduced emotional self-control).
Thus, Distinguish between aggression and aggressiveness. Aggression is a set of certain actions that cause damage to another object; and aggressiveness ensures the readiness of the person at whom aggression is directed to perceive and interpret the behavior of another in an appropriate way.
1.2 Theoretical approaches to the study and explanation of aggressiveness
There are several different approaches to the study and explanation of the phenomenon of aggressiveness.A. A. Rean distinguishes 5 basic directions: the instinctivist theory of aggression (Z. Freud, K. Lorentz and others); frustration (J. Dollard, N. Miller and others); social learning theory (A. Bandura); excitation transfer theory (D. Silmann and others); cognitive models of aggressive behavior (L. Berkovets and others).
So, Z. Freud connects the formation of a child's aggressive behavior with the stages of sexual development (S. Freud, 1989). The representative of the theory of instincts K. Lorentz, like Z. Freud, believes that a person cannot cope with his aggressiveness, he can only direct it in the right direction (Lorenz K., 1994). And according to J. Dollard, aggression is a reaction to frustration. The effect of catharsis helps a person to reduce his aggressiveness.
Proponents of social learning theory, on the contrary, believe that the more often a person commits aggressive actions, the more these actions become an integral part of his behavior. In this, the role of parents is great, who, by their example, without realizing it, can teach the child to show aggression.
The definition of aggression is carried out through various approaches. The main ones are:
normative approach. Particular attention is paid to the illegality of actions and violation of generally accepted norms. Aggressive behavior is considered to be behavior that includes 2 main conditions: there are consequences that are detrimental to the victim and at the same time the norms of behavior are violated.
Deep psychological approach. The instinctive nature of aggression is affirmed. It is an integral innate feature of the behavior of any person.
Target approach. Explores hostile behavior from the point of view of its intended purpose. According to this direction, aggression is a tool of self-affirmation, evolution, adaptation and appropriation of vital resources and territories.
Efficient approach. Emphasizes the consequences of such behavior.
Intentional approach. Evaluates the motivations of the subject of hostility, which prompted him to such actions.
emotional approach. Reveals the psycho-emotional aspect of the behavior and motivation of the aggressor.
A multidimensional approach includes an analysis of all factors of aggression with a deep study of the most significant, from the point of view of an individual author. A large number of approaches to the definition of this psychological phenomenon does not provide an exhaustive definition of it. Too extensive and multifaceted is the concept of "aggression". The types of aggression are very diverse. But still, it is necessary to understand and classify them in order to better understand the causes and develop ways to deal with this serious problem of our time.
.3 Reasons for aggressive behavior
The search for the causes and the most effective means of controlling aggressive behavior remains relevant today. A large place is also occupied by questions related to the analysis of the nature of those factors that contribute to aggression.
In this case, two main areas of research can be distinguished:
External factors contributing to the manifestations of aggression.
Identification of internal factors contributing to aggression.
Proponents of the first approach seek to reveal the nature of the action of external factors that have a significant impact on the manifestations of aggressiveness. In this case, we are talking about the negative factors of the human environment, such as the impact of noise, water and air pollution, temperature fluctuations, large crowds of people, encroachment on personal space, etc. Questions about elucidating the role of alcohol and drugs also find a certain place in research in this area.
In the studies of scientists, a certain place is occupied by the study of the specifics of the impact on the aggression of the human environment. In the works of R. Baron, D. Silmann, J. Carlsmith, C. Muller and others, the idea is that aggression never occurs in a vacuum and that its existence is largely due to some aspects of the natural environment that provoke its occurrence and influence on the form and direction of its manifestations.
In the works, mainly American, as well as a number of Western European scientists, some features of the action of marijuana, barbiturates, amphetamine and cocaine are revealed. The negative consequences of taking alcohol are considered more carefully, especially to clarify its influence on the aggressive behavior of a person. This takes into account a similar effect on the human body and drugs.
The sharp aggravation of racial conflicts prompted US scientists to actively study the influence of racial characteristics on the manifestation of aggressiveness. Western researchers are focusing their attention on elucidating the origins of various kinds of ethnic prejudices and their influence on aggression.
The data of R. Baron, E. Donnerstein and other scientists have shown that in many cases representatives of whites show much less direct hostility towards potential victims among blacks than towards fellow citizens of their skin color. As for the latter, they turn out to be more aggressive towards whites.
Many experts consider the shortcomings of family education to be one of the main reasons for aggressiveness:
Hyper-custodial / hypo-custody. Insufficient control and supervision of children (upbringing by the type of hypoprotection) often leads to the development of persistent aggressive forms of behavior. It should be noted that the age of parents also affects the choice of parenting style. The phenomenon of overprotection is often accompanied by a mismatch between the demands placed on the child by the parents, and this is another additional factor in the development of child aggressiveness.
Physical, psychological or sexual abuse against a child or against one of the family members witnessed by the child. In this case, the child's aggressive behavior can be considered as a psychological defense mechanism or be the result of learning (copying the parental model of relationships).
The negative influence of sibs (rejection, rivalry, jealousy and cruelty on their part). According to Felson (1983), children are more aggressive towards a single sibling than against a large number of children with whom they associate. Patterson (Patterson, 1984) found that siblings of aggressive children were more likely to counterattack than siblings of non-aggressive children.
Maternal deprivation can also be considered as a factor in the formation of aggressive behavior. Frustrated needs for parental affection, love, care, leads to the development of a sense of hostility. The behavior of such a child is characterized by aggressiveness, but this aggressiveness has a protective, protest character.
The presence of specific family traditions can cause the child's aggressiveness. We are talking about distorted models of education, the specific behavior of parents, and the cultivation of these qualities (models of education) as the only true ones.
Incomplete families. According to Geotting (1989), juvenile killers often come from broken families.
Bochkareva G.P. highlights the types of families that contribute to the formation of aggressive behavior in children and adolescents:
) with a dysfunctional emotional atmosphere, where parents are not only indifferent, but also rude, disrespectful towards their children;
) in which there are no emotional contacts between its members, indifference to the needs of the child with external well-being of relations. The child in such cases seeks to find emotionally meaningful relationships outside the family;
) with an unhealthy moral atmosphere, where socially undesirable needs and interests are instilled in the child, he is drawn into an immoral lifestyle.
Lichko A.E. identifies 4 dysfunctional situations in the family that contribute to the formation of aggressive and generally deviant behavior, the formation of aggressive and generally aggressive behavior in children and adolescents, for example,
aggressiveness teenager psychology behavior
1) overprotection of various degrees: from the desire to be an accomplice in all manifestations of the inner life of children (his thoughts, feelings, behavior) to family tyranny;
) hypo-custody, often turning into neglect;
) the situation that creates the "idol" of the family - constant attention to any motivation of the child and immoderate praise for very modest successes;
) a situation that creates "Cinderella" in the family - many families have appeared where parents pay a lot of attention to themselves and little to children.
In general, aggressive behavior in the family is formed according to three mechanisms:
) imitation and identification with the aggressor;
) defensive reaction in case of aggression directed at the child;
) a protest reaction to the frustration of basic needs.
Thus, there are different opinions about the causes of aggressive behavior, but many scientists believe that in each case there are reasons, and often there is not one, but several at once.
2. Aggressive behavior of teenagers
2.1 Psychological features of adolescence
Every age is good in its own way. And at the same time, each age has its own characteristics, has its own difficulties. No exception is adolescence. This is the longest transition period, which is characterized by a number of physical changes. At this time, there is an intensive development of the personality, its rebirth.
From a psychological dictionary: "Adolescence is a stage of ontogenetic development between childhood and adulthood (from 11-12 to 16-17 years old), which is characterized by qualitative changes associated with puberty and entry into adulthood."
According to external signs, the social situation of development in adolescence is no different from that in childhood. The social status of a teenager remains the same. All teenagers continue to study at school and are dependent on their parents or the state. The differences are reflected rather in the internal content. Emphasis is placed differently: family, school and peers acquire new meanings and meanings.
Comparing himself with adults, a teenager comes to the conclusion that there is no difference between him and an adult. He claims equal rights in relations with elders and goes into conflicts, defending his "adult" position.
Simultaneously with the external, objective manifestations of adulthood, a feeling of adulthood arises - the attitude of a teenager towards himself as an adult, an idea, a feeling of being, to some extent, an adult. This subjective side of adulthood is considered the central neoplasm of adolescence.
Along with a sense of adulthood, D.B. Elkonin considers the adolescent tendency towards adulthood: the desire to be, seem and be considered an adult. The desire to look like an adult in the eyes of others increases when it does not resonate with others. . The desire for adulthood and independence of a teenager often collides with the unwillingness, unwillingness or even inability of adults (primarily parents) to understand and accept this.
Anna Freud described the teenage trait: "Teenagers are extremely selfish, consider themselves the center of the universe and the only object worthy of interest, and at that time they are not capable of such devotion and self-sacrifice in any of the subsequent periods of their lives. They are ascetic, but suddenly plunge into debauchery of the most primitive nature. Sometimes their behavior towards other people is rude and unceremonious, although they themselves are incredibly vulnerable. "
Interests develop during adolescence. However, they are still unstable and diverse. Teenagers are characterized by a desire for novelty. The so-called sensory thirst - the need for new sensations, on the one hand, contributes to the development of curiosity, on the other hand, to quickly switch from one thing to another with a superficial study of it.
Typical features of adolescents experiencing a pubertal crisis are also irritability and excitability, emotional lability. Emotions of adolescents are deeper and stronger than those of children of primary school age. Especially strong emotions are caused in teenagers by their appearance. The heightened interest of adolescents in their appearance is part of the psychosexual development of the child at this age.
Psychological tasks of adolescence can be defined as tasks of self-determination in three areas: sexual, psychological (intellectual, personal, emotional) and social. The problems of this age may be related to the search for ways to satisfy six basic needs: a physiological need that gives impetus to the physical and sexual activity of adolescents; the security needs that adolescents find in belonging to a group; needs for independence and emancipation from the family; attachment needs; the need for success, for testing one's capabilities; finally, the need for self-realization and development of one's own self.
The period of growing up, adolescence, being a crisis, can provoke the emergence of deep psychological problems, including the development of aggressiveness in children of this age.
Thus, adolescence is a period of active formation of a person's worldview - a system of views on reality, oneself and other people. At this age, self-esteem and self-knowledge are improved, which has a strong influence on the development of the individual as a whole. Self-esteem is the central neoplasm of adolescence, and the leading activity is communication and socially significant activities. Communication conflicts arise due to misunderstanding by parents of children. In this regard, there is dissatisfaction in communication, which is compensated in communication with peers, whose authority plays a very significant role.
2.2 Adolescent aggressiveness
In adolescence, the aggressiveness in the behavior of a teenager increases. There are a number of substantiations of an objective nature, biological and psychological.
The factors contributing to the growth of aggressiveness among adolescents include the deterioration of the social conditions of children's lives. This does not apply to the financial condition of families. It concerns the isolation of the child from the world of adults and other children outside the school. Yards with their games and easy communication are increasingly disappearing from the lives of children. In the yards, children learned to be friends, to love, to get along and quarrel, to be at enmity and put up. The modern child is increasingly stewing in the juice of his own family and mass culture, which brings him up from the TV and computer screens. 200 - 300 "friends" in the "Contact" and the inability to be friends with one is becoming the usual state of affairs of the modern teenager. Even the word "friend" has acquired some strange meaning. Now this means clicking a computer key in response to a stimulus (virtual invitation). Because of the fear of the parents, the child is deprived of the opportunity to go out into the yard or invite friends to his place, to establish relations with the bully or to protect the weak. Meaning the loneliness<#"justify">The combination of unfavorable biological, psychological, family and other socio-psychological factors distorts the entire lifestyle of adolescents. Characteristic for them is the violation of emotional relationships with other people. Adolescents fall under the strong influence of the adolescent group, which often forms an asocial scale of life values. The very way of life, environment, style and social circle contribute to the development and consolidation of deviant behavior. Thus, the existing negative microclimate in many families causes the emergence of alienation, rudeness, hostility of a certain part of adolescents, the desire to do everything out of spite, against the will of others, which creates objective prerequisites for the appearance of demonstrative disobedience, aggressiveness and destructive actions.
The intensive development of self-consciousness and self-criticism leads to the fact that a child in adolescence discovers contradictions not only in the world around him, but also in his own idea of himself.
At the first stage of adolescence (at 10-11 years old), the child is characterized by a very critical attitude towards himself. About 34% of boys and 26% of girls (according to Feldshtein D.I.) give themselves completely negative characteristics, noting the predominance of negative traits and forms of behavior, including rudeness, cruelty, aggressiveness. At the same time, in children of this age, physical aggressiveness predominates and indirect aggressiveness is least pronounced. Verbal aggression and negativism are at the same stage of development.
A situationally negative attitude towards oneself persists at the second stage of adolescence (at 12-13 years old), being determined to a large extent by the assessments of others, both adults and peers. At this age, negativism becomes most pronounced, there is an increase in physical and verbal aggression, while indirect aggressiveness, although it gives a shift compared to younger adolescence, is still less pronounced.
At the third stage of adolescence (at 14-15 years old), a teenager compares his personal characteristics, forms of behavior with certain norms adopted in the reference groups. At the same time, verbal aggressiveness comes to the fore, which is 20% higher than the indicators of 12-13 years old and almost 30% higher at 10-11 years old. Physical and indirect aggressiveness increase insignificantly, as well as the level of negativism.
Spontaneously emerging peer groups unite adolescents who are close in terms of development level and interests. The group reinforces and even cultivates deviant values and behaviors, has a strong influence on the personal development of adolescents, becoming a regulator of their behavior. The sense of distance lost by teenagers, the sense of what is acceptable and what is not acceptable, leads to unpredictable events. There are special groups that are characterized by an attitude towards immediate satisfaction of desires, towards passive protection from difficulties, and the desire to shift responsibility onto others. Adolescents in these groups are distinguished by a disdainful attitude to learning, poor academic performance, and failure to fulfill obligations: avoiding in every possible way to perform any duties and assignments around the house, prepare homework, and even attend classes, such adolescents find themselves in the face of a large amount of "extra time". But for these adolescents, it is precisely the inability to meaningfully spend leisure time that is characteristic. The vast majority of these teenagers do not have any individual hobbies, they are not involved in sections and circles. They do not visit exhibitions and theaters, they read very little, and the content of the books they read usually does not go beyond the adventure-detective genre. Wasted time pushes teenagers to search for new "thrills". Alcoholization and drug addiction are closely woven into the structure of the deviant lifestyle of adolescents. Often teenagers celebrate their “merits” by drinking alcohol: successful adventures, hooligan acts, fights, petty thefts. Explaining their bad deeds, teenagers have the wrong idea about morality, justice, courage, bravery.
It has been established that among adolescents convicted of aggressive crimes, 90% committed crimes while intoxicated.
L.M. Semenyuk gives data on the predominance of one or another type of aggressive behavior in adolescents from different segments of the population (Table 1).
Table 1
Manifestations of various forms of aggressiveness in adolescents from different social strata of the population.
Social strata Forms of aggressiveness, % physical indirect verbal negativism From the working environment 70% 45% 50% 30% From the environment of builders 65% 55% 60% 40% From the environment of rural workers 67% 60% 65% 20% From the environment of low-skilled auxiliary workers (laundresses, cleaners) 30 % 65% 75% 50% From among middle-level employees 40% 45% 75% 60% From among executives 60% 67% 35% 90% From among trade workers, businessmen 20% 30% 25% 10% From among intellectuals (teachers, doctors, engineers) 25% 40% 55% 80%
The above data on the manifestations of various forms of aggressive behavior of adolescents from different social strata of the population are not only of psychological and theoretical, but also of practical importance, allowing you to navigate in the nature of the personality of a teenager, taking into account the peculiarities of the influence of the social situation, the impact of the family.
Employees of the University of Cambridge have established the cause of the aggressive behavior of adolescents. It turns out that the so-called "stress hormone" - cortisol, is to blame, the level of which regulates the degree of caution of behavior.
A study was conducted that showed that the content of cortisol in the body increases significantly when a person gets into a stressful situation. In such cases, the hormone stimulates memory and makes people behave more carefully. However, as it turned out, in adolescents with antisocial behavior, unlike their calm peers, cortisol levels do not increase even in the most exciting situations. Thus, it is difficult for them to control their own negative emotions and suppress their craving for violence. Moreover, the level of stress hormone in such people, under certain circumstances, may, on the contrary, decrease.
Adolescents learn patterns of aggressive behavior mainly from three sources: from the family, from peers, from the media. Currently, the latter factor has become the most influential due to the predominance of plots that indirectly cultivate aggression.
Thus, we examined the concept of aggressive behavior, the causes and features of the manifestation of aggression in children and adolescents.
Aggressive behavior is currently not only one of the most pressing problems in psychological research, but also methods for diagnosing aggressive behavior and methods for its correction are being actively developed.
2.3 Methods for diagnosing and correcting adolescent aggressive behavior
Aggressive behavior of adolescents is easily detected through observation. But to confirm the results of observation, psychologists use special methods for diagnosing aggressiveness. Consider the main ones that are applicable to children and adolescents.
To diagnose deviations in behavior, you can use the criteria developed by American psychologists M. Alvord and P. Baker. If 4 of the 8 signs listed below appear systematically, it can be assumed that the child is aggressive.
Signs of aggression in a child:
-Often loses control of himself.
-Often argues, swears with adults, peers.
-Often refuses to follow the rules.
-Often deliberately annoying people.
-Often blames others for their mistakes.
-Often gets angry and refuses to do anything.
-Often envious, vengeful.
-Sensitive, reacts very quickly to various actions of others (children and adults), which often irritate him.
In diagnosing the qualitative originality of manifestations of aggression in adolescents, it is possible to use the Bass-Darky questionnaire.
motivational aggression as a value in itself
instrumental as a means
The Bass-Darkey questionnaire is aimed at identifying destructive tendencies inherent in the personality. According to the authors, having determined their level, it is possible with a high degree of probability to predict the possibility of manifestation of open motivational aggression.
Creating their own questionnaire that differentiates manifestations of aggression and hostility, A. Basse and A. Darki identified the following types of reactions:
Physical aggression is the use of physical force against another person.
Indirect aggression - aggression, in a roundabout way directed at another person or directed at no one.
Irritation - readiness to display negative feelings at the slightest arousal (temper, rudeness).
Negativism is an oppositional manner in behavior from passive resistance to active struggle against established customs and laws.
Resentment - envy and hatred of others for real and fictional actions.
Suspicion ranges from distrust and caution towards people to the belief that other people are planning and causing harm.
Verbal aggression is the expression of negative feelings both through the form (scream, screech) and through the content of verbal responses (curses, threats).
Guilt - expresses the subject's possible conviction that he is a bad person, that evil is being done, as well as remorse he feels.
The questionnaire consists of 75 statements, to which the subject answers "yes" or "no". When compiling the questionnaire, the authors used the following principles:
A question can refer to only one form of aggression.
Questions are worded in such a way as to minimize the influence of public approval of the answer to the question to the greatest extent.
Responses are evaluated on eight scales, and an index of hostility and an index of aggressiveness are also calculated.
The norm of aggressiveness is the value of its index, equal to 21 plus or minus 4.
The norm of hostility is 6.5-7 plus or minus 3.
At the same time, attention is drawn to the possibility of achieving a certain value, showing the degree of manifestation of aggressiveness.
The Hend-testtest technique is a projective technique for studying the aggressive behavior of a person. It can be used in the diagnosis of children and adolescents. Published by B. Bryklin,
Piotrovsky and E. Wagner in 1961 (the idea of the test belongs to E. Wagner) and is intended to predict open aggressive behavior.
The stimulus material of the test consists of 9 standard images of hands and one empty table, when shown, they are asked to imagine a hand and describe its imaginary actions. Images are presented in a certain sequence and position. The subject must answer the question of what, in his opinion, the action is performed by the drawn hand (or say what the person whose hand assumes such a position is capable of performing). In addition to recording responses, the position in which the subject holds the table is recorded, as well as the time from the moment the stimulus is presented to the beginning of the response.
The evaluation of the received data is carried out in the following 11 categories:
Aggression - the hand is perceived as dominant, inflicting damage, actively grasping an object;
Instructions - the hand leading, guiding, preventing, dominating over other people;
Fear - the hand acts in responses as a victim of the aggressive manifestations of another person or seeks to protect someone from physical influences, and is also perceived as causing damage to itself;
Attachment - the hand expresses love, positive emotional attitudes towards other people;
Communication - responses in which the hand communicates, contacts or seeks to establish contacts;
Dependence - the hand expresses submission to other persons;
Exhibitionism - the hand exposes itself in many ways;
Mutilation - the hand is deformed, sick, incapable of any action;
Active impersonality - responses in which the hand tends to act, the completion of which does not require the presence of another person or people, however, the hand must change its physical location, make an effort;
Passive impersonality is also a manifestation of a "tendency to action", the completion of which does not require the presence of another person, but the hand does not change its physical position;
Description - answers in which the hand is only described, there is no tendency to act.
The answers related to the first two categories are considered by the authors as related to the willingness of the subject to the external manifestation of aggressiveness, unwillingness to adapt to the environment. The four subsequent categories of responses reflect a tendency to act to adapt to the social environment, the likelihood of aggressive behavior is negligible. A quantitative indicator of open aggressive behavior is calculated by subtracting the sum of "adaptive" responses from the sum of responses for the first two categories.
Open aggressive behavior = S ("aggression" + "instructions") - S ("fear + "attachment" + "communication" + "addiction").
Answers that fall under the categories "exhibitionism" and "mutilation" are not taken into account when assessing the likelihood of aggressive manifestations, because. their role in this area of behavior is not constant. These answers can only clarify the motives of aggressive behavior.
In the theoretical substantiation of the test, its authors proceed from the position that the development of hand functions is associated with the development of the brain. The importance of the hand in the perception of space, orientation in it, necessary for the organization of any action, is great. The hand is directly involved in external activity. Therefore, by offering subjects as visual stimuli images of a hand performing various actions, it is possible to draw conclusions about the trends in the activity of the subjects.
According to G.P. IMATON (St. Petersburg), the interpretation of this projective test and the methods of processing the results obtained provide great opportunities for practical psychologists, especially for those who work in the fields of studying deviant behavior and medical psychology.
There are other methods for diagnosing aggressive behavior, but these are the most well-known and effective.
Correctional work with aggressive teenagers has its own characteristics. Group forms are not shown in the initial stages. Here, casual conversations are suitable, as if in between times. They should not be spoken in an edifying tone. By my own example, I was convinced that a heart-to-heart talk has a more effective result than a moralizing conversation.
Individual work with a teenager is more effective, more useful for further communication. General conversations about the need to "behave well" turn out to be completely ineffective, moreover, they only exacerbate the conflict.
Consider some methods of corrective work with aggressive teenagers:
The method of conversational therapy - logotherapy - is a conversation with a teenager, aimed at verbal description of emotional experiences. Description of experiences causes a positive attitude towards the one who talks to the teenager, readiness for empathy, recognition of the value of the personality of another person. This method involves the emergence of a coincidence of verbal argumentation and the internal state of a teenager, leading to self-realization, when a teenager focuses on personal experiences, thoughts, feelings, desires.
Music therapy - the use of musical works and musical instruments in the work. For teenagers who show anxiety, anxiety, experience fears, tension, a simple listening to music is carried out, which is accompanied by a task. When calm music is played, the teenager is instructed to think about objects that make him feel uncomfortable or to offer to rank unpleasant situations from minimal to most severe.
Image therapy is the use of image play for the purpose of therapy. A wide variety of specific techniques are used here: retelling a literary work in a predetermined situation, retelling and dramatization of a folk tale, theatricalization of a story, reproduction of classical and modern drama, playing a role in a play. Teenagers put on a play, "losing conflict and significant situations for themselves, trying, as it were, to look at this situation from the outside and see themselves in it. The experiences of children, realized through the images of animals, plants, differ from human ones and at the same time help to understand the feelings of others, overcome anxiety, fear, and establish friendly relations.
Moritatherapy is a method by which a teenager is placed in a situation where it is necessary to make a good impression on others. The teacher invites the child to express his opinion about something, and then corrects his ability to speak out, give an assessment, take a pose accordingly, use facial expressions, gestures, intonation, etc. d.
Game therapy is a method in which various games are used in the work, depending on the situation. These can be one-time games, acquaintance games and the creation of a friendly environment, used during the initial acquaintance. Outdoor games are held for a walk, for entertainment, in free time. They help to establish friendly contact, relieve tension, excessive aggression. Games for relieving tension in boy-girl groups, for trust, for contact, allow a teenager to get to know each other better in the game, to establish contact. Teamwork games unite teenagers into a team, develop friendly relations.
An example such a situation can serve. On a walk between two boys, a conflict arose: the boys did not share the ball. A scuffle began, other guys joined in, insults flew. The presence of a psychologist did not stop the guys. The psychologist had a whistle in his pocket. An unexpected sharp whistle stopped the children, they suddenly looked at the psychologist in surprise, as if she was not there and suddenly appeared, and even with a whistle. The psychologist, as if nothing had happened, with a smile on her face, suggested that the children play the game "Cossacks-robbers . The guys gladly agreed, forgetting about the fight. But not all, one of the initiators of the fight refused to play, defiantly sat down on a bench and watched the game from the side. But the game was so contagious that after 5 minutes he could not stand it and came to the guys himself. Playing in a team, the guys, the initiators of the brawl, jointly followed the rules of the game, not remembering the quarrel.
The forms of work can be different: these are thematic conversations and evenings, sports events and intellectual quizzes, various trainings that help overcome aggression in a child. These are well-chosen poems and works of art that guide the child in the right direction.
A special place in correctional work should be given to the formation of a teenager's range of interests, also based on the characteristics of his character and abilities. It is necessary to strive to minimize the period of free time of a teenager - "the time of idle existence and idleness" by involving him in positively shaping activities: reading, self-education, playing music, sports, etc.
Based on the fact that the development of the child is carried out in activities, and the teenager seeks to assert himself, his position as an adult among adults, it is necessary to ensure that the teenager is included in such activities that lie in the sphere of interests of adults, but at the same time create opportunities a teenager to realize and approve himself at the level of adults.
DI. Feldstein singled out socially recognized and socially approved activities. The psychological meaning of this activity for a teenager is that by participating in it, he actually joins the affairs of society, occupies a certain place in it and maintains his new social position among adults and peers. In the process of this activity, a teenager is recognized by adults as an equal member of society. Such activity provides a teenager with the opportunity to develop his self-awareness, forms the norms of his life. But the methods and principles of such activities require significant adjustments when including adolescents who are characterized by increased aggressiveness. First of all, it is necessary to organize a system of extensive activities that creates harsh conditions and a certain procedure for actions and constant monitoring. Given the consistency, gradual introduction of aggressive adolescents to various types of socially recognized activities - labor, sports, artistic, organizational and others - it is important to observe the principles of public assessment, continuity, and a clear construction of this activity.
Conclusion
An analysis of the literature showed that domestic psychologists, Slavina, O.P. Eliseev, A.A. Rean and others, unlike foreign ones, attach more importance not to aggression as behavior, but to aggressiveness as a personality trait. But here it should be noted that there are no comprehensive studies of aggressiveness as a personality trait in the literature.
Also, at present there is no single point of view on the causes of aggressive behavior. The most weighty in this sense are genetic theories and social learning theories. Especially domestic scientists are talking more and more about the role of the family as the main institution of the child's socialization in the development of personal characteristics, and in particular aggressiveness.
Today, the question of the causes of aggressive behavior is especially acute due to the fact that the number of aggressive children and adolescents is increasing every year.
An indispensable condition for the development of deviant and including aggressive behavior is an excess of free time, the absence of positively shaping hobbies. Many adolescents have an incomplete family with impaired functional ties. On the other hand, overprotection, as well as neglect, often contribute to delinquent behavior. Reactions caused by excessive control and tedious teachings and instructions find their expression in the form of unauthorized departures and vagrancy, aggressiveness.
Among modern adolescents, aggressive behavior is quite common, often taking a hostile form (fights, insults). For some teenagers, engaging in fights, asserting oneself with the help of fists is an established line of behavior. The situation is aggravated by the instability of society, interpersonal and intergroup conflicts. The age of manifestation of aggressive actions decreases. Increasingly, there are cases of aggressive behavior in girls.
Most researchers have come to the following conclusions:
· teenage aggression has direct roots in the immediate environment of a teenager (for example, at school);
· the most aggressive are those teenagers whose behavior is not monitored by anyone, who are left to their own devices (experiencing a lack of attention), and those who are subjected to severe punishments;
· aggressive behavior is largely determined by the immediate environment of a teenager: friends, teachers, media;
· children learn to behave aggressively by observing the behavior of their peers, since the behavior of adults is less significant for them; the most aggressive children are rejected by the majority in their group, so they find friends among aggressive peers. On this basis, youth groups with pronounced antisocial behavior are formed: once rejected, but strong, they are ready to challenge the whole society;
· the media play a significant role in the formation of aggression in adolescents, however, we can not talk about all the media in general, but only about a specific publication, publication, film, etc.;
· aggressive behavior of adolescents, as a rule, accompanies poor development of social and cognitive skills; when the social and cognitive gap with peers is eliminated, the aggressiveness of behavior decreases. The same happens in persons with borderline forms of mental retardation;
· aggressive behavior in adolescence has a different continuation into adulthood: socially determined forms of aggression usually decrease, while biologically determined aggression increases.
Psychological and pedagogical correction of the aggressive behavior of adolescents cannot be limited only to measures of individual influence applied directly to the minor. Social recovery and socio-pedagogical correction require an unfavorable environment that causes social maladjustment of a teenager.
A few tips on how parents should behave if their children show aggressive behavior or prevent such undesirable behavior:
.The manifestation of unconditional love for the child by the parents in any situation. You can't insult a child. No need to pay off the child with gifts, etc. Much more important is your direct attention.
2.Parents, if they do not want their children to be fighters and bullies, must themselves control their own aggressive impulses.
.It is impossible to suppress the manifestation of aggression by a child, otherwise suppressed aggressive impulses can harm his health. Teach him to express his hostile feelings in a socially acceptable way: in a word or action that is harmless to others, in sports.
.If the child is angry, screams, rushes at you with fists - hug him, press him to you. Gradually he will calm down, come to his senses.
.Respect the personality in your child, consider his opinion, take his feelings seriously.
.Show your child the ultimate ineffectiveness of aggressive behavior.
.It is necessary to establish social rules of behavior in a form accessible to the child. For example, "we don't beat anyone, and nobody beats us."
.It is necessary to talk with the child about his act without witnesses.
.It is necessary to exclude situations that provoke negative behavior of the child.
Thus, the goal of our work has been achieved, the tasks have been completed. The most promising in the further study of the problem of adolescent aggressiveness may be: the definition of forms and technologies for providing psychological support to adolescents with deviant behavior.
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The problem of aggressive behavior remains one of the most serious problems in psychology.
An angry, aggressive child, a fighter and a bully is a great parental chagrin, a threat to the well-being of the children's team, a "thunderstorm" of the yards, but also an unfortunate creature that no one understands, does not want to understand, regret.Under aggression, as E. Fromm notes, one should understand any actions that cause or have the intention to cause damage to another person, a group of people and an animal, as well as causing damage to any inanimate object in general.
According to R.S. Nemov, aggressiveness is understood as hostility - a person's behavior towards other people, which is distinguished by the desire to cause them trouble, to harm.
Aggression (from the Latin agressio - attack) is a motivated destructive behavior that is contrary to the norms, the rules of coexistence of people in society, causing physical damage to people.
(D. Myres). Rean A.A. proposes not to identify the concept of "aggression" and "aggressiveness". Aggression is unmeasured actions aimed at causing harm to another person. Aggressiveness is a personality trait, expressed in readiness for aggression.
At present, the idea of aggression is increasingly being asserted as motivated external actions that violate the norms and rules of coexistence, causing harm, causing pain and suffering to people. In this regard, there is a distinction between instrumental and deliberate aggression. Instrumental aggression is when a person does not set as his goal to act aggressively, but it was necessary or necessary to act in this way.
Aggression that parents have to deal with. The first is non-destructive aggression, that is, persistent, non-hostile self-protective behavior aimed at achieving a goal and training. Research suggests that non-destructive aggression is caused by innate mechanisms that serve to adapt to the environment, satisfy desires and achieve the goal.
Another form is hostile destructiveness, that is, malicious, unpleasant, hurtful behavior to others. Hatred, rage, bullying, the desire for revenge can also be a form of self-defense, but they give rise to many personal problems and make others suffer.
Types of aggression.
Physical aggression is the use of physical force against another person.Irritation - readiness to manifest negative feelings at the slightest arousal (temper, rudeness).
Verbal aggression is the expression of negative feelings both through the form (scream, screech) and through the content of verbal responses (curse, threats).
Indirect aggression:
Directed - (gossip, vicious jokes).
Non-directional - (shouts in the crowd, stomping, etc.).
Negativism is an oppositional manner in behavior from passive resistance to active struggle against established customs and laws.
All these types of aggression can be observed in people of all ages, and sometimes they manifest themselves from early childhood. The formation of a child's aggressive behavior is influenced by many factors, for example, some somatic or brain diseases, as well as various social factors, can contribute to the manifestation of aggressive qualities.
Causes of child aggression.
Aggression, like any other reaction, can be learned through imitation. Preschool children who observed adults expressing various forms of aggression subsequently imitated the actions of adults, including the most unusual ones: beating a doll, gouging out her eyes, pulling out her hair. Unfortunately, other manifestations are also known in practice: a preschooler, falling into a rage and anger, brutally beats his brother or sister with his feet; pours sand into the eyes of his comrade, beating him on the head with a shovel or other object. In response to the remarks of the teacher, the child shows the same aggression towards her.
This imitation is promoted primarily mass media information, broadcast, as it seems to us, it seems to us very much, there are a lot of films - and even more so cartoons - of an aggressive theme. Children who have watched these films and cartoons, in which ladies and gentlemen wave their arms and legs, smashing each other's faces into blood, shoot from all types of weapons (while they are portrayed as true heroes), behave also aggressively, imitating them. After watching such films, children do not fall asleep well, sleep anxiously, are anxious and aggressive during the day. Often in children with a weak psyche, nervous breakdowns occur. In kindergarten, they almost never sleep during the day, I violate discipline. It is especially disturbing to see girls who, hiding behind the veranda of the playground, show their girlfriends new “tricks”, waving their legs and arms.
This is an inexplicable information war against their own people, aimed at educating the younger generation in the spirit of cruelty and aggression; it is ready-made material for manipulating children in adolescence and beyond.
Family Influence .
The family can not only serve as an example of appropriate behavior, but also reinforce it. At the same time, not only manifestations of aggression of family members towards each other are important, but also in relation to the parents' attitude to the child's behavior. There are a huge number of studies that convincingly show the relationship between negative relationships in the "parents-child" system, emotional deprivation (deprivation) in the family and aggression. It has been established, for example, that if a child has developed negative relationships with one or more parents, if the tendency for the development of positivity in self-esteem and the I-concept does not find support for guardianship, then the likelihood of deviant behavior already at preschool age increases significantly, relations with peers worsen, and aggressiveness is manifested. towards their own parents.
Indulgence towards the aggressive manifestations of the child, as well as severe punishment for them, leads to a high level of aggression in children. The optimal position of the parent is when they condemn aggression, clearly let the child understand their point of view and do not resort to strict punishments.
Most often, a child is aggressive because of psychological problems that he cannot cope with. There may be different reasons for aggressive behavior.
- Fatigue . Children from dysfunctional families often have unbalanced nervous processes: when such children get tired, their excitement begins to grow. From this they get tired, and the case ends in a breakdown.
- Fear ("defensive aggression"). If a child has a negative experience of relationships with people, he can defend himself in advance, trying to prevent situations that somehow remind him of what has already happened to him.
- Reaction to adult ban , on the restriction of personal freedom, on the situation when the child does not get what he needs. Tip: explain to the child the reason for the ban. If the child’s desire is simply not in time, you can offer him some kind of compromise (“we will do it, but later”).
- Demanding attention . Children who are not paid attention to, who lack the love of their parents (this also happens in prosperous families), as if they say: “Oh, so? Don't you notice me? Well, I won’t let you forget about me!” any sign of attention, even negative, is important for them.
- Desire to attract the attention of peers (the boy snatches the book from the girl; scatters the toys and starts barking loudly, imitating an angry dog, which naturally attracts attention).
- Infringement of the dignity of another in order to emphasize one's superiority (noticing that the partner was upset because he did not have the necessary details of the designer, the boy shouts "ha - ha, that's what you need, you can't do anything, you are a crybaby and a whiner").
- Protection and revenge (in response to an “attack” or forcible removal of a toy, children respond with bright outbursts of aggression).
- Striving to be in charge (for example, after an unsuccessful attempt to take first place in the formation, the boy pushes the boy ahead of him, grabs his hair and tries to bang his head against the wall).
- Striving to get the main item (some children resort to direct violence to possess a toy).
Thus, the analysis of the problem of aggressive behavior of children is particularly relevant. This problem is the subject of numerous psychological works, both in our country and abroad.
Educators note that there are more and more aggressive children every year, it is difficult to work with them, and often teachers simply do not know how to cope with their behavior. The only pedagogical influence that temporarily saves is punishment or reprimand, after which the children become more restrained for a while, and their behavior begins to meet the requirements of adults. But this kind of pedagogical influence rather enhances the characteristics of such children and in no way contributes to their re-education or a lasting change in behavior for the better.
Most manifestations of aggressive behavior are observed in situations of protecting one's interests and asserting one's superiority, when aggressive actions are used as a means to achieve a certain goal.
Games and exercises.
Flower bed.
An adult invites children to play: “Guys, imagine a flower bed with many flowers growing on it. All flowers grow side by side, and therefore the flower bed looks like a multi-colored carpet. With the onset of morning, all the flowers straighten their stems, straighten their leaves, turn to the sun, smile at him, a light breeze helps them say hello: they gently and affectionately touch each other with petals and nod their flower heads. Passers-by admire the friendly and beautiful flowerbed. Let's make-believe such a flower bed.
Greeting without words.
This game involves first after the games, and later can serve as a successful greeting ritual at the beginning of classes. “Guys, how do you usually say hello when you come to kindergarten or visit? Let's figure out how to say hello without words. For example, animals can't talk, but they can also greet each other." Children are invited to greet with noses, hands, nods, pats on the shoulder, eyes, smiles, etc. the basic rule of the game: "Try to say hello in such a way that the other person would be pleased with it."
Mirror.
Children are offered a game: “Guys, do you like to look in the mirror? It always repeats what you do. Let's try to play in the mirror. One of you will show some movements, and all the rest will be a mirror that will repeat all the movements shown.
Find yours
.
The adult explains: “Guys, you know that in the animal world there are conventional signs, movements, smells, by which animals recognize their own: a hare recognizes a hare, a bee recognizes a bee from its hive, a wolf recognizes a wolf, etc.
Radio.
An "announcer" is chosen who is looking for a lost child. The "announcer" chooses one of the participants, describes his appearance and features. The rest of the participants have to guess who they are talking about. Who guessed it, he becomes the "announcer".
Watch.
The game involves at least six people. The adult says that the clock will run smoothly, without breaking, and invites all participants to be alone.
Among the players, a child is selected who stands in the middle of the circle, stretches one arm forward, depicting an arrow. In a circle, he turns to each and says “tic” or “tock”. All students take turns raising the right hand, then the left hand, then the right hand and the left hand fall. Rules of the game: first the right hand rises, then the left hand, hands do not fall until there is a signal; wait for your own signal: “tic” or “tock”; Anyone who breaks the rules is out of the game. Once the rules are learned, the pace of the game speeds up.
Constructor.
One child takes the role of "designer", the rest - the role of "material". The “constructor” invents or creates something according to the condition, then presents his invention (car, train, robot, etc.) and shows how the created machine or mechanism works in a complex way. For example, the “train” must move smoothly, the wagons must not be uncoupled, etc.
Velcro.
All children run away from the "tag", which is "Velcro". The one who was caught by the Velcro joins her, and they, holding hands, continue to catch other children. Every next person caught by Velcro joins it. When all the children are caught, they stand in a circle and say: "I'm Velcro - sticky, I want to catch you."
Mirror of emotions
.
Children are invited to play in the "mirror" with the image of a certain mood. Children are invited: “Guys, you have different moods. Let's see what it looks like from the outside." One child is selected, which expresses a different mood: joy, sadness, anger, disgust, fear. The rest should depict the mood that the child shows.
Mood phone.
Children sit in a row. The adult says: “Guys, you all talked on the phone. When it's working, you hear what you're being told, and when it's broken, you hear it wrong. Let's try to play with you. To do this, everyone closes their eyes, and the first in the row thinks of some kind of mood. He "becomes" a neighbor and shows some kind of mood. He "wakes up" the neighbor and shows his mood. The neighbor wakes up the next one, and so on until the end of the chain. The latter names the mood that was shown to him. If he calls correctly, then the phone can be considered serviceable.
Two countries.
An adult offers the children: “Guys, let's play the game“ Two countries ”. One is the Country of Sadness, sad people live there, and in the other, the Country of Joy, cheerful people live. The inhabitants of a cheerful country must resettle the sad inhabitants by making them happy.”
Mood store.
Children sit in a row, a child is selected who comes to the “mood store” and asks for any mood: “I came to you with joy
(fun, fright, interest). The rest of the children must fulfill the request of the buyer and try to “infect” with fun or scare, calm down, tell something interesting, scary, etc.
Caring granddaughter.
Children are offered a game with the following content: “A caring granddaughter takes his grandmother to the hospital. His grandmother cannot see or hear well. The granddaughter must take her across the road, bring her to the doctor, buy medicine and bring her grandmother home. The grandson must bring the grandmother across the road to the cancer so that they are not hit by a car.” The roles of “grandmother” (I blindfold my grandmother), “grandson”, “car”, “doctor”, “pharmacist” are assigned and the plot is played out.
Living dolls.
Children are divided into pairs. The host explains the content of the game: “Remember, when you were little, many of you believed that your toys were alive, that they could talk, ask, run. Let's imagine that one of you has turned into a small child, and the other into his doll: a doll - a girl or a doll - a boy. The doll will ask for something, and its owner will fulfill the requests and take care of it. An adult offers to pretend to wash the hands of the doll, feed, take a walk, swing on a swing. The main rule: the owner of the doll must fulfill all her desires and not force the doll to do what she does not want.
Magic case
.
Children sit in a circle. One of them sits in the middle of the circle, and he is invited to imagine that he has a “magic suitcase” in his hands. Everyone sitting in a circle must come up with what the child wants or needs, and give this gift. The child in the circle accepts the gift, thanks. This game can be played in a circle, when everyone gives a gift to their neighbor along the chain, then at the end of the game everyone will have a gift in the “suitcase”. The main task of the child is to guess the desire of a peer.
Exercise "Greetings".
1) To lyrical music.
The day has come. I smiled at you, and you will smile at each other and think how good it is that we are here together today. We are calm and kind, friendly and affectionate. We are always healthy. What do we wish today ... .. (all children are listed).
What do you want to wish me?
Take a deep breath and with a sigh forget yesterday's grievances, anger, anxiety.
Exhale the freshness and beauty of white snow, the warmth of the sun, the purity of the rivers. I wish you good mood and respect for each other.
2) Adult:
Hello golden sun!
Hello blue sky!
Hello free breeze!
Hello little oak tree!
We live in our native land
I welcome you all!”
An adult greets each child, calling him an affectionate name. Children respond to greetings.
Introduction
1. Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of studying the features of aggressive behavior of adolescents in domestic and foreign psychology
1.1 Definition and essence of aggressive behavior
1.2 Aggression as a character trait, as aggressive behavior
1.3 Formation and assimilation of aggressive behavior by a person
2 Chapter 2. Experimental study and analysis of the results
2.1 Purpose, objectives, hypothesis and research methods
2.2 Research
Conclusion
Bibliography
Applications
Introduction
Relevance of the research topic.
A modern teenager lives in a world that is complex in content and socialization trends. The tense, unstable social, economic, ecological, ideological situation that has currently developed in our society causes the growth of various deviations in the personal development and behavior of growing people.
One of the main characteristics of adolescence is the entry into public life, the emergence of new responsibilities, an active desire for self-realization, the teenager begins to show success in a particular type of activity, to express thoughts about his future profession. At the same time, in adolescence, the child’s mental cognitive processes develop further and his personality is formed, as a result of which the child’s interests change. They become more differentiated and persistent. Educational interests are no longer of paramount importance. The child begins to focus on "adult" life. This process often manifests itself in the form of aggressive behavior.
The relevance of the chosen topic: "Peculiarities of aggressive behavior of adolescents" is explained as follows. Firstly, the need to study the problem of adolescent aggressive behavior is determined by the realities of modern society, in which there is a tendency to accumulate psychological stress and resort to antisocial behavior as one of the possible ways to get rid of the state of frustration and tension. The ability to overcome stressful situations and the formation of self-control over aggressiveness, the containment of aggressive acts plays an important role in the development of psychological processes of empathy, identification and decentralization, which underlie the ability to understand other people and empathize with them, contributing to the formation of an idea of another person as a unique value.
Secondly, taking into account the huge number of scientific fields that have studied the problems of aggressive behavior in the psychological and pedagogical aspects of working with aggressive adolescents, it is necessary to determine the real psychological causes of aggressiveness, to reveal the conditions, mechanisms, formation and assimilation of aggressive behavior by adolescents, as well as means of preventing it. and correction determines the relevance of this work.
These circumstances determined the choice of the research topic and the main directions of its development.
Problem development:
The variety of existing concepts that try to explain the phenomenon of aggression, no doubt, indicates the diversity and multifaceted nature of this problem.
A number of studies are devoted to the problem of aggression, both in the domestic Levitov N.D., Rumyantseva T.G., Ivanova L.Yu., S.A. Belicheva, Semenyuk L.M., Petrov V.G., Pavlova N.N., and etc., and in foreign literature Dollard, Kagan and others.
Most studies identify and describe the levels of aggressive behavior and the factors influencing it. Among these factors, the features of family education (Eron L.D., Huesmann L.R., Lefkowitz M.M.), models of aggressive behavior on the TV screen (Bandura A., Grusec J.E.) or from peers (Dodge K.A., Haskins R.), the level of frustration (Berkowitz I ., 1989), etc.
Extensive material was obtained in the course of L.M. Semenyuk, on the basis of his analysis of documentation, conversations with teachers, parents, a classification analysis of the aggressiveness of adolescents was carried out on a complex of personality traits typical for a certain group of adolescents.
Purpose and objectives of the study: The purpose of this study is to identify the characteristics of aggressive behavior in adolescence. Based on the goal, we solve the following tasks:
1. to consider and analyze the psychological and pedagogical research of foreign and domestic researchers on the problem of determining the phenomenon of aggression and its boundaries;
2. identify patterns of aggression as a character trait, as aggressive behavior;
3. to determine the essence of the formation and assimilation of aggressive behavior by a person in adolescence, the definition of factors that have a dominant effect on the manifestation of aggression in adolescence;
Research hypothesis:
Object of study: aggressive behavior.
Subject of study:
Research methods:
Theoretical: analysis of scientific developments in psychology regarding the issues under study, system analysis and synthesis.
Empirical:
Assinger test (assessment of aggressiveness in a relationship);
Bass-Darky Method (MBD);
Questionnaire of interpersonal relations (OMO);
And methods of mathematical statistics.
The study involved 60 students from the 9th "A", "B", "C" and "G" grades of secondary school No. 4.
Approbation of work: at the end of the study and processing of the results, all participants in this study were familiarized with them.
Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of studying the features of aggressive behavior of adolescents in domestic and foreign psychology
1.1 Definition and essence of aggressive behavior
The phenomenon of aggression is widely studied in psychology and sociology - to date, the study of the problem of aggressive human behavior has become perhaps the most popular area of research activity of psychologists around the world. This is most likely due to the unprecedented increase in the level of aggression and violence in modern society.
Numerous definitions of aggression have been proposed in the literature by various authors. Aggression is understood as "strong activity, the desire for self-affirmation, acts of hostility, attacks, destruction, that is, actions that harm another person or object." Human aggressiveness is a behavioral response characterized by the manifestation of force in an attempt to harm or damage an individual or society. Many authors view aggression as a reaction of hostility to another's frustration, regardless of how hostile that frustration is.
We list some of the definitions given by Baron R. and Richardson D. in their monograph "Aggression":
1. Aggression is any behavior that threatens or harms others - Bass;
2. for certain actions to be qualified as aggression, they must include intention insults or insults, and not just lead to such consequences, - Berdkowitz;
3. aggression is an attempt to inflict bodily or physical harm on others, - Silmann.
Despite considerable disagreement regarding the definitions of aggression, many social scientists tend to accept a definition close to the second one given here. This definition includes both the category of intent and the actual infliction of offense or harm to others. Thus, the following definition is currently accepted by the majority:
Aggression is any form of behavior aimed at insulting or harming another living being who does not want such treatment.
At first glance, this definition seems simple and frank, as well as closely related to the understanding of aggression from the standpoint of everyday consciousness. However, upon closer examination, it turns out that it includes some features that require a deeper analysis. Let's consider them in more detail.
Aggression as a behavior- the definition suggests that aggression should be considered as a pattern of behavior, and not as an emotion, motive or attitude. This important statement has created a lot of confusion. The term aggression is often associated with negative emotions - such as anger, motives - such as desire, insult, or harm, and even negative attitudes - such as racial or ethnic prejudice. While all of these factors undoubtedly play an important role in the behavior that results in harm, their presence is not a necessary condition for such actions.
Aggression and intent- the definition of the term aggression implies actions by which the aggressor intentionally causes harm to his victim. Unfortunately, the introduction of the criterion of deliberate infliction of damage gives rise to many serious difficulties. First, the question is what do we mean when we say that one person intends to harm another. Secondly, as many well-known scientists say, intentions are personal, hidden plans, inaccessible to direct observation. They can be judged by the conditions that preceded or followed the acts of aggression in question. Such conclusions can be made both by the participants in the aggressive interaction and by outside observers, who in any case influence the explanation of this intention. The inclusion of the category of intention in the definition of aggression introduces instability and inconsistency in the understanding of whether this or that action is an act of aggression. However, sometimes the intention to harm is established quite simply - the aggressors themselves often admit to wanting to harm their victims and often regret that their attacks were ineffectual. And the social context in which aggressive behavior unfolds often clearly indicates the existence of such intentions.
From the notion that aggression implies either harm or insult to the victim, it follows that inflicting bodily harm on the recipient is not mandatory. Aggression takes place if the result of actions is any negative consequences. Thus, in addition to insults by action, such manifestations as exposing someone in a disadvantageous light, slandering or public ridicule, deprivation of something necessary, and even the denial of love and tenderness can, under certain circumstances, be called aggressive. In view of the fact that the manifestations of aggression in humans are endless and diverse, it turns out to be very useful to limit the study of such behavior.
Consider the concept-scheme of the Bass type of aggression:
Physical - active - direct
Physical - Active - Indirect
Physical - Passive - Direct
Physical - passive - indirect
verbal - active - direct
verbal - active - indirect
verbal - passive - direct
Verbal - passive - indirect
In his opinion, aggressive actions can be described on the basis of three scales: physical - verbal, active - passive and direct - indirect. Their combination gives eight possible categories under which most aggressive actions fall.
It is also necessary to distinguish between hostile and instrumental aggression:
Hostile aggression - manifests itself when the main goal of the aggressor is to cause suffering to the victim. People who exhibit hostile aggression simply seek to cause harm or harm to the person they are attacking.
Instrumental aggression - is characterized when the aggressors attack other people, pursuing goals that are not related to causing harm. In other words, for individuals who show instrumental aggression, harming others is not an end in itself. Rather, they use aggressive actions as a tool for the fulfillment of various desires.
The non-harmful goals behind many aggressive actions include coercion and self-assertion. In the case of coercion, evil may be inflicted with the aim of influencing another person or "getting your own way". According to Bandura, despite the differences in goals, both instrumental and hostile aggression are aimed at solving specific problems, and therefore both types can be considered instrumental aggression. Silmann later replaced the terms "hostile" and "instrumental" aggression with "stimulus-driven" and "drive-driven".
Stimulus-driven aggression refers to actions that are taken primarily to eliminate an unpleasant situation or reduce its harmful effects (eg, severe hunger, mistreatment by others). Motivation-driven aggression refers to actions that are taken primarily with the aim of achieving various external gains.
Dodge and Koyi suggested using the terms reactive and proactive aggression:
Reactive aggression involves retaliation in response to a perceived threat.
Proactive aggression, like instrumental aggression, generates behavior (for example, coercion, influence, intimidation) aimed at obtaining a certain positive result.
These scientists conducted a series of studies in which they found differences between the two types of aggression. The authors found that primary school students (boys) showing reactive aggression tend to exaggerate the aggressiveness of their peers and therefore respond to apparent hostility with aggressive actions. Students who exhibited proactive aggression did not make similar mistakes in interpreting the behavior of their peers.
Dodge and Koya's research provided empirical evidence for the existence of two distinct types of aggression. Regardless of the choice of term for these different types of aggression, it is clear that there are two types of aggression, motivated by different goals.
Despite the variety of conflicting theories put forward in the scientific literature, most of them fall into one of the following four categories. Aggression refers primarily to:
1. innate urges or inclinations;
2. needs activated by external stimuli;
3. cognitive and emotional processes;
4. actual social conditions in combination with previous learning.
At the entrance of which several different groups of theories were put forward on the origin and essence of aggression of behavior: the instinctive theory of aggression, evolutionary, frustration, the theory of social learning and the theory of excitation transfer.
Psychoanalytic direction
The psychoanalytic direction considers aggressive behavior mainly as instinctive. According to this concept, "aggression arises because human beings are genetically or constitutionally programmed for such actions." The main instinct is thanatos - the drive to death, whose energy is directed to the destruction and termination of life. Freud argued that all human behavior is the result of a complex interaction between this instinct and eros, and that there is a constant tension between them. In view of the fact that there is a sharp conflict between the preservation of life (ie eros) and its destruction (thanatos), other mechanisms (such as displacement) serve the purpose of directing the energy of thanatos outward, away from the "I".
Freud's views on the origins and nature of aggression are extremely pessimistic. This behavior is not only innate, originating from the “built-in” death instinct in a person, but also inevitable, because if the energy of thanatos is not turned outward, this will soon lead to the destruction of the individual himself. The only glimmer of hope comes from the fact that the outward expression of the emotions that accompany aggression can cause a discharge of destructive energy and thus reduce the likelihood of more dangerous actions. This aspect of Freud's theory (the proposition about catharsis) has often been interpreted as follows: performing expressive actions that are not accompanied by destruction can be an effective means of preventing more dangerous actions.
evolutionary approach
The evolutionary approach is close to the instinctive one regarding the consideration of aggressive behavior. The representative of this theoretical direction is the famous ethologist Konrad Lorenz.
K. Lorentz believed that aggressive behavior originates from the instinct of the struggle for survival, which is present in people in the same way as in other creatures. A significant role in the formation of aggressive impulses is the presence of identification of "one's own" and "alien". In the course of the evolution of social behavior, social groups that are internally consolidated and alienated from their neighbors emerge. Stereotypes allow you to quickly, by a few decisive criteria, recognize friend and foe, group mate and outsider, they simplify the world and instill a sense of confidence. And in human society there are stereotyped beliefs and prejudices based on them (national, racial, as well as gender and class).
Lorentz believed that aggressive energy is generated in the body continuously and accumulates over time. The greater the amount of aggressive energy accumulated in the body at a given moment, the less stimulus is needed for this energy to “splash” outward in the form of aggressive behavior.K. Lorentz, in his work on aggression, interprets it as the driving force of the struggle for survival, and this struggle mainly takes place within one species.
frustration theory
According to the frustration theory created by Dollard, aggression is not an attraction that automatically arises in the depths of the body, but a consequence of frustration, i.e., obstacles that arise in the way of the subject's purposeful actions. This theory states that, firstly, aggression is always a consequence of frustration and, secondly, frustration always entails aggression. At the same time, frustrated individuals do not always resort to verbal or physical attacks on others. Rather, they demonstrate the full range of reactions to frustration: from humility and despondency to active attempts to overcome obstacles in their path.
Frustration causes aggression, especially in people who have learned the habit of responding to frustration or other aversive stimuli with aggressive behavior. On the other hand, people who are used to other reactions may not behave aggressively when they are frustrated. Taking into account these considerations, Miller, who was one of the first to formulate the theory of frustration - aggression, immediately amended the first of the above provisions: frustration generates various behaviors, and aggression is only one of them.
Thus, three factors are decisive in relation to the incitement to aggression:
1. the degree of satisfaction expected by the subject from the future achievement of the goal;
2. the strength of the obstacles on the way to achieving the goal;
3. number of consecutive frustrations.
That is, the more the subject anticipates pleasure, the stronger the obstacle and the more responses are blocked, the stronger will be the push to aggressive behavior. Subsequently, Dollard and co-authors suggested that the influence of the frustrations following one after another could be cumulative and this would cause aggressive reactions of greater force than each of them separately. From what has been said, it follows that the influence of frustrating events persists for a certain time - this assumption is important for some aspects of the theory.
When it became clear that individuals do not always react aggressively to frustration, Dollard et al. turned to factors that slow down the overt display of aggressive behavior. They came to the conclusion that such behavior does not occur at the same time, primarily because of the threat of punishment. A frustrated individual who is deterred by fear of punishment from attacking another person who has prevented him from achieving his intended goal may redirect his attacks to other objects. Although the most appropriate or desirable object for defusing aggression in a frustrated individual will be the person who blocked his goal-directed behavior, other people can also serve as objects of aggression.
Miller explained this by the appearance of displaced aggression - that is, those cases when individuals show aggression not towards their frustrators, but towards completely different people. The author suggested that in such cases, the choice of the victim by the aggressor is largely due to three factors:
1. force of inducement to aggression,
2. the force of factors that inhibit this behavior and
3. the stimulus similarity of each potential victim to the frustrating factor. Many authors view aggression as a reaction of hostility to another's frustration, regardless of how hostile that frustration is.
Social learning theory
Unlike others, this theory states that aggression is a learned behavior in the process of socialization through the observation of an appropriate course of action and social reinforcement. Those. there is a study of human behavior, oriented to the sample.
This theory was proposed by A. Bandura and explained the assimilation, provocation and regulation of aggressive behavior. From his point of view, the analysis of aggressive behavior requires taking into account three points:
Ways of assimilation of such actions;
Factors provoking their appearance;
The conditions under which they are fixed.
Supporters of social learning theory believe that the more often a person commits aggressive actions, the more these actions become an integral part of his behavior. Therefore, significant importance is given to training, the influence of the primary mediators of socialization, namely parents, who, by their example, without realizing it, can teach a child to show aggression.
Excitation transfer theory
The modern point of view on the origin of aggressive behavior is associated with cognitive learning theory. In it, aggressive actions are considered not only as a result of frustration, but also as a result of learning, imitation of other people. This direction is represented by Silmann, who proves that “cognition and arousal are closely interconnected; they influence each other throughout the process of experiencing, bringing suffering experience and behavior.
Aggressive behavior in this concept is interpreted as the result of the following cognitive and other processes:
1. Evaluation by the subject of the consequences of his aggressive behavior as positive.
2. The presence of frustration.
3. The presence of emotional overexcitation such as affect or stress, accompanied by internal tension, from which a person wants to get rid of.
4. The presence of a suitable object of aggressive behavior that can relieve tension and eliminate frustration.
Thus, we have considered various theoretical directions, each of which gives its own vision of the essence and origins of aggression.
1.1. Aggression as a character trait, as aggressive behavior.
Behavior, according to most social psychologists, is a joint function of the individual and his environment. In other words, the behavior of an individual in society is determined by the impact of the situation in which he finds himself, as well as those qualities, emotions and inclinations that he displays in this situation. Most of the current theories that address the problem of aggressive behavior assume that it is determined by external factors related to the situation or environment, cognitive variables and systems, as well as internal factors that reflect the characteristic features of the propensity of a particular aggressor, i.e. individual determinants of aggression. This term refers to the prerequisites for the emergence and development of aggression, concentrated mainly in the stable character traits and inclinations of potential aggressors. Let us consider in more detail the influence of personal characteristics on the manifestation of aggressive behavior.
Thus, research confirms that individuals with high levels of anxiety tend to expect punishment, or at least social disapproval, for their participation in speaking out against others. In many cases, situational factors seem to overshadow even bright individual inclinations. As a result, under certain conditions, even the meekest, mildest faces in ordinary life show aggressiveness, while the most hostile, the most quick-tempered ones abstain from it.
One personality characteristic that has an impact on the manifestation of aggression is the tendency to attribute hostile intentions to others, even if there is no such intention at all. This trend is known as hostility attribution bias. Its influence on behavior has been studied in many recent works. The most convincing results of the possible impact of this factor were obtained by Dodge and his colleagues.
Dodge and Quayet, in a series of papers, have considered the possibility that individual differences in attribution bias influence the occurrence or strength of reactive aggression—aggression in response to prior provocation, but not proactive aggression that occurs in the absence of provocation. As a behavioral disorder of the type of low socialization, characterized by a tendency to physical violence and the absence of a person's social and emotional ties with other members of society. The tendency to biased attribution of hostility is related to reactive rather than proactive aggression and is directly related to conduct disorder precisely by the type of low socialization. In addition, the higher the subjects' tendency to biased attribution of hostility, the more violent crimes they committed against others.
The results obtained by Dodge and many other researchers show that the tendency to biased attribution of hostility is an important personality characteristic that is directly related to aggression. It has been found to be associated with the manifestation of aggression in both children and adults; both in persons suffering from psychological disorders, and in completely healthy people.
Irritability and emotional sensitivity, as personality characteristics, are also relevant to the problem under consideration. So, one of these traits is irritability (a persistent tendency to be offended by even a minimal provocation), the other is emotional sensitivity (“a persistent tendency, characteristic of some individuals, to feel incompetent and experience distress in response to the most moderate frustrations. In the studies of Caprara, Renzi, Alchini, D "Imperio and Travaglia, the results showed that both personality factors are related to aggression. With regard to emotional sensitivity, the data obtained were less clear, but also suggested that this factor is related to open aggression. All these results suggest that irritability, in contrast to emotional sensitivity, may be more closely associated with aggression, especially if it was preceded by provocation.
In another study by Blassom, the researcher suggested that the role of the locus of control for the nature of aggressive behavior as a personality factor plays an important role in a situation where individuals' confidence in their ability to influence their own destiny can be an additional personality factor relevant to aggression in many situations. .
The most significant research of our own is the attempt to typify aggressive behavior among adolescents. Thus, aggressive adolescents, with all the differences in their personal characteristics and behavioral characteristics, have some common features. These features include the poverty of value orientations, their primitiveness, lack of hobbies, spiritual needs, narrowness and instability of interests, including cognitive ones. These children, as a rule, have a low level of intellectual development, increased suggestibility, imitation, and underdevelopment of moral ideas. They are characterized by emotional rudeness, anger, both against peers and against surrounding adults. Such adolescents have extreme self-esteem (either the most positive or the most negative), increased anxiety, fear of wide social contacts, egocentrism, inability to find a way out of difficult situations, the predominance of defense mechanisms over other mechanisms that regulate behavior. At the same time, among aggressive adolescents there are also children who are intellectually and socially well developed. For them, aggressiveness acts as a means of raising prestige, demonstrating their independence, adulthood. Therefore, the disclosure of the causes and nature of the aggressiveness of adolescents requires a certain classification, conditional typology.
It is no coincidence that attempts to implement such a typology have been repeatedly made in domestic and foreign psychology. At the same time, some researchers consider it necessary to base on the psychophysiological differences of children, while others take as a basis the peculiarities of their psychosocial development. So, for example, groups of adolescents are distinguished, where the first group includes children with psychopathic character traits; to the second - with mental retardation, and, finally, to the third - adolescents who do not have pathological abnormalities, but were incorrectly brought up, neglected, which gave rise to stubbornness, permissiveness, and as a result, aggressiveness and other forms of deviations.
At one time, P.G. Velsky, trying to classify difficult teenagers, proceeded from the motivation of their behavior. He singled out:
Adolescents actively seeking to satisfy elementary and base needs;
Weak-willed children, amenable to suggestibility, incitement;
Acting under the influence of hysteria, etc.
In modern conditions, I.A. Nevsky distinguishes difficult teenagers:
With pedagogical neglect;
With social neglect (morally corrupted);
With extreme social neglect.
Developing this classification, S.Ya. Belicheva brings into the first group deeply pedagogically neglected teenagers. Their judgments are primitive, superficial, the processes of attention and memorization are weakened. These children are distinguished by bravado anti-social acts. The second group is characterized by affective disorders - adolescents are irritable, angry, angry in the affect. Many have hysterical forms of behavior. The third group includes children cheeky, quarrelsome, conflict. Their thinking is inert, their associations are poor, they find it difficult to converge with their peers. A number of Western researchers, starting from the works of Hewitt and Jenkins, proposed a division into two groups: the first group is adolescents with socialized forms of antisocial behavior, who are not characterized by mental, emotional disorders, and the second group - children characterized by unsocialized aggressive behavior, which are characterized by various mental disorders.
An analysis of these data on the age-sex and individual characteristics of the manifestation of aggressive behavior in adolescent children made it possible to carry out their conditional division in accordance with the type of behavior and taking into account the adolescent's value system. It seems that it is precisely this consideration that opens up opportunities for understanding the causes and nature of adolescent aggressiveness, the ways in which aggression is "embedded" in this system, and the place it occupies.
It is known that in a child in adolescence there is a reorientation of some values to others. The teenager seeks to take a new social position that corresponds to his needs and abilities. At the same time, social recognition, approval, acceptance in the world of adults and peers becomes vital for him. Only their presence provides the adolescent with a sense of self-worth. It is no coincidence that the origins of the aggressiveness of adolescents lie, as a rule, in the family, the relations of its members (quarrels, rejection of the child, his coercion, including punishment, fear, etc.) and, to a lesser extent, in collisions with peers and teachers.
It is conditionally possible to distinguish four groups of adolescents based on a certain type of behavior, taking into account the orientation of their personality:
1. the first a group of adolescents is characterized by a stable set of abnormal, immoral, primitive needs, a desire for consumer pastime, and a deformation of values and attitudes. Selfishness, indifference to the experiences of others, quarrelsomeness, lack of authority are typical features of these children. They are self-centered, cynical, embittered, rude, quick-tempered, impudent, pugnacious. Their behavior is dominated by physical aggressiveness.
2. second the group consists of teenagers with deformed needs and values. Possessing a more or less wide range of interests, they are characterized by heightened individualism, a desire to occupy a privileged position by oppressing the weak, the younger ones. They are characterized by impulsiveness, rapid mood swings, deceit, irritability. These children have perverted ideas about courage, camaraderie. They enjoy the pain of others. The desire to use physical force is manifested in them situationally and only against those who are weaker.
3. third A group of adolescents is characterized by a conflict between deformed and positive needs, values, attitudes, and views. They are distinguished by one-sided interests, opportunism, pretense, deceit. These children do not strive for achievements, success, they are apathetic. Their behavior is dominated by indirect and verbal aggressiveness.
4. In fourth The group includes teenagers who are distinguished by slightly deformed needs, but, at the same time, by the absence of certain interests and a very limited social circle. They are weak-willed, suspicious, curry favor with stronger comrades. For these children, cowardice and vindictiveness are typical. Their behavior is dominated by verbal aggressiveness and negativism.
It seems that the tentative classification of adolescent aggressiveness, based on a set of properties typical of a certain group of children, allows not only to more deeply recognize the causes of deviations in their personal development and behavior, but also to outline a typology of educational work methods aimed at correcting the aggressive behavior of adolescents.
The list of personality traits and dispositions that determine the occurrence, intensity and direction of aggression is by no means exhausted by the studies discussed above. Authoritarianism, field dependence or field independence, hostility or aggressiveness itself should be included as examples in this list. Asking on what rungs of the ladder leading to aggression situational and personality variables are located, it should be noted that most social psychologists argue that situational factors, that is, emphasize the role of social, situational and environmental factors, only in the absence or minimum of them. personality variables really come to the fore.
Many researchers report that such factors often play the role of a mediator in relation to situational factors: in other words, a certain situation can be interpreted differently by individuals with different character traits, and as a result, the reaction to the situation can be diametrically opposed.
1.2 Formation and assimilation of aggressive behavior by a person
Some form of aggression is typical for most children. However, it is known that in a certain category of children, aggression as a stable form of behavior not only persists, but also develops, transforming into a stable personality trait. As a result, the productive potential of the child decreases, the possibilities of full-fledged communication are narrowed, and his personal development is deformed.
The study of aggressiveness is especially important in adolescence. In recent years, scientific interest in this problem has increased significantly. This is due to the fact that it is in adolescence that not only a radical restructuring of previously established psychological structures takes place, but new formations arise, the foundations of conscious behavior are laid, and a general direction in the formation of moral ideas and social attitudes emerges.
What causes the development of aggressive behavior? How does a person in adolescence acquire a tendency to act aggressively towards others? There is no doubt that at this age, knowledge about models of aggressive behavior is drawn from three main sources:
1. family - can simultaneously demonstrate models of aggressive behavior and provide its reinforcement. Adolescents' likelihood of aggressive behavior depends on whether they experience aggression at home;
2. they also learn aggression through interaction with peers, often learning about the benefits of aggressive behavior during play;
3. And finally, adolescents learn aggressive reactions not only from real examples (behavior of peers and family members), but also from symbolic ones offered in the mass media and the media. Let's consider in more detail.
Family influence as the main factor.
It is in the bosom of the family that the child undergoes primary socialization. On the example of relationships between family members, he learns to interact with other people, learns the behavior and forms of relationships that he will retain in his adolescence and adulthood. Parents' reactions to the child's misbehavior, the nature of relations between parents and children, the level of family harmony or disharmony, the nature of relations with siblings - these are the factors that can predetermine the child's aggressive behavior in the family and outside it, as well as influence his relationship with surrounding in adulthood.
Before turning directly to family relationships, it should be noted that such a characteristic of the family as "complete or incomplete" seems to be associated with the aggressiveness of children. This characteristic qualifies just those very components of the family environment that are associated with the formation of aggressiveness - one or both parents live with the child under the same roof and what is the nature of the relationship between them. To better understand why it is possible to talk about a correlation between child aggression in complete and single-parent families, below we will consider more specific aspects of family relations that can explain this relationship.
Several studies have shown a correlation between negative parent-child relationships and aggressive reactions on the part of the child. If children (regardless of what age group they belong to) have poor relationships with one or both parents, if children feel that they are considered worthless, or do not feel parental support, they may become involved in criminal activities, will turn against other children. Peers will refer to them as aggressive and will behave aggressively towards their parents.
In studying the effects of parental intervention in fights between children in a family, Felson found that children show more physical or verbal aggression against a single sibling than against all. Patterson also reports that "... brothers and sisters are teachers ... in the very process that destroys their lives." He found that siblings of aggressive children were more likely to respond to an attack with a counterattack than siblings of normal children.
The aspect of family relationships that is of most interest to sociologists is the nature of family leadership, that is, the actions of parents aimed at "setting children on the right path" or changing their behavior. Some parents rarely interfere: when raising them, they consciously adhere to a policy of non-intervention - they allow the child to behave as he wants, or simply do not pay attention to him, not noticing whether his behavior is acceptable or unacceptable. Other parents intervene frequently, either by rewarding (for behavior that conforms to social norms) or by punishing (for unacceptable aggressive behavior). Sometimes parents inadvertently reward aggressive behavior or punish socially accepted behavior. Intentional or unintentional, but reinforcement significantly predetermines the formation of aggressive behavior. The study of the relationship between family leadership practices and aggressive behavior in children has focused on the nature and severity of punishments, as well as parental control of children's behavior. In general, it was found that cruel punishments are associated with a relatively high level of aggressiveness in adolescents, and insufficient control and supervision of adolescents correlates with a high level of asociality, often accompanied by aggressive behavior.
This review of the relationship between family leadership style and aggressive behavior leads to the conclusion that both permissiveness (in the sense of lack of control over the child's behavior) and too severe punishment contribute to the increase in the level of aggressiveness of the child.
Although there is noteworthy evidence for an association between various family characteristics and the possibility of developing aggressive behavior, its causal direction is unclear. If parents lack the ability to teach a child to follow certain rules of behavior, disobedience and fists used become his manner. This style becomes dominant in dealing with people. Trying to restrain a child's aggressive behavior with physical punishment is often like throwing a boomerang.
Consider briefly advantages and disadvantages of punishment as a means used by parents for the socialization of children. Of course, the most important component of socialization is the regulation of aggressive behavior.
By punishment, we will mean extreme forms of physical punishment, unless otherwise specified. Of parents who resort to such means, we will say that they use forceful methods of maintaining discipline based on their greater strength or power. The use of physical punishment as a means of raising children in the process of socialization hides a number of specific "dangers". First, parents who punish their children may actually be an example of aggressiveness for them. In such cases, punishment can provoke aggressiveness in the future. Secondly, children who are punished too often will tend to avoid or resist their parents. Thirdly, if punishment is too exciting and upsetting for children, they may forget the reason that gave rise to such actions. In fact, the socialization strategy in this case interferes with the assimilation of the rules of acceptable behavior.
An effective punishment becomes one that is directly related to the child's behavior, so that the act of punishment is regularly and with a high probability carried out after the offense has been committed. The time gap between an unacceptable action and punishment should be minimal, since punishment immediately after the misconduct implies the importance of prohibiting a certain behavior model and is more effective than a delayed one, when no comments and evaluations of undesirable actions are made for some time. The punishment will be most effective if it is applied consistently, that is, the same sanction will always be assigned for the same violation; you can not punish one time for a misconduct, and another time - to ignore such behavior.
Interaction with peers as the main factor.
A growing personality learns various behaviors (both socially acceptable and unacceptable) in the course of interaction with others. And various forms of aggressive behavior also occur when communicating with peers.
For some teenagers, engaging in fights, asserting oneself with the help of fists is an established line of behavior. The emergence of a conflict may also depend on the communication partner, who shows verbal or physical aggression towards the subject. All this causes certain negative states in the subject - annoyance, resentment, anger, indignation, anger, rage, with the appearance of which the formation of a motive for aggressive behavior begins. The experience of these states leads to the emergence of the need of the subject of communication to eliminate mental stress, to defuse it. This need leads to the formation of a still abstract goal: what needs to be done to satisfy the desire to punish the offender, to eliminate him as a source of conflict.
At school, teenagers learn similar lessons when they become victims of bullying. A striking example of this came from an experiment by Patterson, Littman, and Bricker, who found that prep school students who were bullied early in the school year often became violent themselves by the end of the year. However, not all victims of aggression learn these lessons. Those who were attacked more often and successfully defended themselves with aggressive counterattacks were the children most likely to attack other children. The finding that only some victims of abuse copy the aggressive behavior they suffered is consistent with the results of other experiments that have examined the behavior of victims of peer aggression.
Models of aggression in the media as the main factor.
Perhaps the greatest concern for both parents and professionals is caused by the models of aggression shown on television. And this is no coincidence, because both verbal and physical aggression on our television screens are not at all uncommon. Because teens so often experience violence in the media, many people have expressed concern that such a "video diet" may increase children's propensity for aggressive behavior. And it is no coincidence that this topic, which is of particular interest to psychological science and has a high social significance, has recently attracted more and more close attention of researchers.
Seeing scenes of violence stimulates the emergence of aggressive fantasies, helping the person rehearse how he will solve problems with aggression. If family relationships or his interactions with peers play the role of reinforcing aggression, aggressive behavior may become a habit.
In summary, while the available evidence provides real support for the hypothesis that the high levels of violence that characterize contemporary film and television productions, the importance of this relationship should not be overemphasized. For our study, the most important is the fact how a growing personality perceives and evaluates aggression, because. how a person gets on the path of aggressive behavior.
So, let's consider the influence of cognitive processes on the development of aggression.
What teenagers think about aggression can also influence their behavior. Differences in the levels of teenage aggressiveness can be associated with different ways of cognizing the world around the personality. Let us consider in more detail each stage of cognitive awareness of aggression:
1. The first stage of the cognitive process (the end result of which in general is aggressive behavior) is the reading of "calling remarks" that force the individual to "face a social problem." If there is a well-established "scenario", then the decoding of "messages for aggression" will be relatively effective and accurate. By themselves, the expectations or thoughts associated with aggression will force him to take a closer look at the "messages to aggression" associated with this type of behavior. In some cases, a person's dispositions (for example, hostility) or social influences that took place in the recent past (for example, frustrations) can pre-set to aggression, so that he will instantly focus on exactly the right “messages for aggression”.
So, in social situations with many “messages for aggression,” aggressive children tend to focus more on those that suggest or are associated with aggression.
2. The second stage in the considered cognitive model of an aggressive reaction to a situation includes the evaluation and interpretation of the signs found at the first stage. This component of the model has attracted the closest attention of researchers and has received the largest number of empirical confirmations. In this phase of the cognitive process, the adolescent interprets the intentions of others and makes an attribution of causes. In general, we find that the aggressive personality has a preconceived notion that the actions of others are driven by hostility. When evaluating an ambiguous situation in which one person harmed another, an aggressive adolescent is more likely than a non-aggressive adolescent to make the assumption that the harm was intentional and motivated by hostility.
Once an individual comes to the conclusion that hostility was the motivating force of another person's action, he begins to search his memory for a suitable behavioral response. Huismann refers to this move as looking for a "script of behavior." In other words, the teenager must pick up possible reactions. When talking about aggressiveness, it is believed that there are fewer responses in the behavioral repertoire of an aggressive person that are suitable for a particular case, and that they are more likely to be associated with aggression.
Dodge and Crick suggested that a child actualizes a response from a set of responses relatively easily if he has recently experienced or been reminded of a particular response, or if his “list” of possible responses is limited. And teenagers convicted of aggressive and antisocial actions generally offered a very limited number of solutions and hardly thought about the possible consequences. Obviously, non-aggressive adolescents, having more appropriate responses at their disposal, will be more likely to choose non-aggressive behaviors.
Having realized the list of possible reactions, the child must assess the acceptability of each and choose which one to translate into reality. The criteria for such an assessment may be different. In this capacity, the potential consequences of the decision can act - that is, is this strategy of behavior within its power and how effective will it be? The evaluator can decide whether he will be able to carry out the actions included in the selected reaction.
At this stage, the likely results or consequences of using the chosen strategy are also evaluated.
3. At the last stage of this complex cognitive process, real behavior is carried out - the individual "acts according to the scenario." This is where behavioral skills can be especially important. Obviously, a person cannot behave in a certain way if he does not know how to do it.
The formation of aggressive behavior is a complex and multifaceted process in which many factors act; aggressive behavior is determined by the influence of family, peers, and the media. Adolescents learn aggressive behavior through direct reinforcement as well as through observation of aggressive actions. With regard to the family, the degree of family cohesion, closeness between parents and the child, the nature of the relationship between brothers and sisters, and the style of family leadership influence the formation of aggressive behavior. Children who have a strong discord in the family, whose parents are aloof and cold, are relatively more prone to aggressive behavior. There is also a lesson learned from parental responses to aggressive sibling relationships that a child can get away with it. In fact, in trying to stop negative relationships between their children, parents may inadvertently encourage the very behavior they want to get rid of. The nature of family leadership is directly related to the formation and strengthening of aggressive behavior. Parents who use extremely harsh punishments and do not supervise their children's activities run the risk of discovering that their children are aggressive and disobedient. Although punishments are often ineffective, they can have a strong positive effect on behavior if applied correctly.
A teenager also receives information about aggression from communication with peers. Children learn to behave aggressively by observing the behavior of other children. However, those who are extremely aggressive are more likely to be rejected by the majority in their age group. On the other hand, these aggressive children are likely to find friends among other aggressive peers. Of course, this creates additional problems, since in an aggressive company there is a mutual strengthening of the aggressiveness of its members.
In children, one of the main ways to learn aggressive behavior is to observe someone else's aggression. Children who experience violence in their homes and who themselves are victims of violence are prone to aggressive behavior. But one of the most controversial sources of teaching aggression is the media. After many years of research using a wide variety of methods and techniques, we still have not figured out the degree of influence of the media on aggressive behavior. It seems that the mass media still has some influence. However, its strength remains unknown.
Dodge and his colleagues developed a model to find out why some children often resort to aggression in relationships with others. Its main thesis is that the way of cognitive processing of social signs of a situation affects the style of behavior. The model describes the following five steps:
1. deciphering social signs;
2. interpretation of social signs;
3. choice of a possible reaction;
4. evaluation of the intended reaction;
5. implementation of the selected reaction.
In fact, the model assumes that aggressive behavior is a consequence of poor development of social-cognitive skills.
In the literature on the stability of aggressive reactions over time, it is believed that behavior in childhood is a fairly reliable predictor of behavior in adulthood. In other words, a person who was rated as aggressive by their peers as a child is likely to be rated the same way as an adult. It follows from this persistence of aggressive behavior that the study of early influences on the formation of aggressiveness is an important area of research.
Thus, based on the foregoing, we can conclude that the aggressive behavior of children and adolescents has a complex multifactorial nature, its study requires, firstly, the implementation of a systematic approach that reveals the hierarchy and interconnection of unfavorable factors, secondly, the use of comparative analysis, and thirdly, the implementation an interdisciplinary approach that involves the use of the achievements of such branches of psychology as age, social, pedagogical, medical. A systematic analysis of individual, personal, socio-psychological and psychological-pedagogical factors that cause social deviations in the behavior of minors will make it possible to more specifically outline the methods of educational and preventive work in order to correct and prevent aggressive behavior of adolescents.
Chapter 2. Experimental study and analysis of the results
2.1 Purpose, objectives, hypothesis and research methods
Each stage of personality development is associated with the solution of certain tasks. The personality of a teenager is characterized by some features that significantly distinguish him from an adult. These are increased sensitivity and excitability, imbalance, irritability, a combination of shyness, shyness with arrogance and freedom, the desire for independence, liberation from the influence of authorities, the transition to independence, the individualization of the psyche and at the same time the insufficiency of its individual character, the influence of the immediate environment. These features are reflected in many forms of behavior, communication, experiences, which are usually combined with the expression "difficulties of adolescence". Socially significant features of the human psyche are formed at the macrosocial level, that is, at the level of large social groups, to which young people can be attributed. The experience of large social groups (traditions, special forms of behavior, special types of contact, values, needs, specific language, etc.) is acquired by an individual through communication with members of a small social group (class, yard company, labor collective, informal youth association). The personal psychology of an individual includes that which is common to one degree or another to all members of a small group, as well as personal, inherent only to him.
Consideration of the essence and characteristics of the aggressive behavior of adolescents as an integral system, the identification of factors in the development of such behavior will make it possible to clarify the multifactorial nature of the characteristics of adolescent aggression and prevent aggressive behavior at this age.
Purpose of the study: The purpose of this study is to identify the characteristics of aggressive behavior in adolescence.
Research hypothesis: in this study, I put forward a hypothesis that aggressive behavior in adolescence can act as a way of adapting to modern social conditions. Aggressive behavior differs by gender, the level and type of aggression will be different in complete and incomplete families, because. family education is a factor in the manifestation of such behavior at this age.
The purpose and hypothesis led to the formulation of the main objectives of the study:
1. the use of scientific concepts of foreign and domestic researchers as a basis for their own research;
2. select methods that are the most effective for identifying the psychological characteristics of aggressive behavior in accordance with the hypothesis;
3. identify the level, type of aggression using specialized techniques, as well as the level of interpersonal relationships in the team;
4. make an analysis of the results of the study.
Object of study: aggressive behavior.
Subject of study: features of aggressive behavior of adolescents.
The course work uses psychological testing of each of the subjects individually, using methods that determine their level and type of aggression, as well as the level of interpersonal relationships, in order to determine the relationship between these indicators.
Base for research: 60 students from the 9th "A", "B", "C" and "D" grades of secondary school No. 4, aged 14-15 years old, were interviewed, of which 37 were girls and 23 were boys.
Control groups:
-gender characteristics;
-full and incomplete family;
Research methods:
1. interview and survey, to identify a given study of the control group; A. Assinger's technique(Appendix No. 1). The technique is designed to diagnose the aggressiveness of a person in relation to others, allows you to determine the level of correctness in social contacts, and allows you to judge the direction of aggression. The technique is intended for diagnosing aggression of a person in labor collectives, and with individual counseling, for career guidance, the Assinger test is used in combination with other techniques; Bass-Darky technique (MBD) -(Appendix No. 2). The technique was proposed in 1957 to measure the degree of manifestation of various forms of aggressive behavior, is increasingly being used in our country (as well as abroad). A. Bass and A. Darki, creating their own questionnaire that differentiates manifestations of hostility and aggression, identified the following types of reactions:
Physical aggression is the use of physical force against another person.
Indirect - aggression, in a roundabout way directed at another person or directed at no one.
Irritation - readiness to display negative feelings at the slightest arousal (temper, rudeness).
Negativism is an oppositional manner in behavior from passive resistance to active struggle against established customs and laws.
Resentment - envy and hatred of others for real and fictional actions.
Suspicion ranges from distrust and caution towards people to the belief that other people are planning and causing harm.
Verbal aggression is the expression of negative feelings both through the form (scream, screech) and through the content of verbal responses (curses, threats).
Guilt - expresses the subject's possible conviction that he is a bad person, that evil is being done, as well as remorse he feels.
The questionnaire consists of 75 statements, to which the subject answers "yes" or "no". When compiling the questionnaire, the authors used the following principles:
1. the question can refer to only one form of aggression;
2. Questions are formulated in such a way as to minimize the influence of public approval of the answer to the question to the greatest extent.
Responses are scored on the eight scales described above. The hostility index includes scales 5 and 6, and the aggressiveness index (direct or motivational) includes scales 1, 3, 7. The norm of aggressiveness is the value of its index equal to 21 ± 4, and hostility - 6.5-7 ± 3. At the same time, attention is drawn to the possibility of achieving a certain value, showing the degree of manifestation of aggressiveness.
2. interpersonal relationship questionnaire -(Appendix No. 3). The questionnaire is a Russian-language version of the FIRO questionnaire, widely known abroad, developed by the American psychologist W. Schutz. The author of the proposed version is A. A. Rukavishnikov. The questionnaire is aimed at diagnosing various aspects of interpersonal relations in dyads and groups, as well as at studying the communicative characteristics of a person. It can be successfully used in counseling and psychotherapeutic work. The OMO questionnaire is based on the basic postulates of the three-dimensional theory of interpersonal relations by W. Schutz. The most important idea of this theory is the position that each individual has a characteristic way of social orientation in relation to other people, and this orientation determines his interpersonal behavior.
3. In theory, an attempt is made to explain the interpersonal behavior of the individual on the basis of three needs: "inclusion", "control" and "affect". These needs develop in childhood in the interaction of the child with adults, primarily with parents. Thus, the development of the need for "inclusion" depends on how the child was included in the family; the need for "control" depends on whether the emphasis in the parent-child relationship was on freedom or control; the need for "affect" depends on the degree to which the child has been emotionally accepted or rejected by his immediate environment. If these needs were not met during childhood, the individual feels insignificant, incompetent, unworthy of love. To overcome these feelings, he develops protective mechanisms in himself, which manifest themselves as characteristic ways of behaving in interpersonal contacts. Formed in childhood, these modes of behavior continue to exist in adulthood, determining in general the typical features of the orientation of the individual in the social environment.
2.2 Research
At the first stage of the study, the subjects were offered the Assinger technique, with the help of which we determined the level and direction of aggression. Using this technique, the following data were obtained, which are presented in the diagram below:
Also, the data obtained were analyzed by control groups, the following table was compiled:
Conclusions according to the Assinger method: Analyzing the data obtained, we can say that adolescents in this group are dominated by an average level of aggressiveness, the data obtained and analyzed for the control groups indicate that:
Boys have higher levels of aggression than girls;
The level of aggression is comparatively higher in complete families than in incomplete families. The data obtained confirm the hypothesis and the course of the study in full, at this stage.
Method #2 - Bass-Darky Method (MBD)
Using this technique (Appendix No. 2), we were able to determine the type of aggressive behavior among the subjects. All this is presented in the table below.
Table 1 (average scores for each study group)
Type of aggression Control groups |
physical aggression | indirect aggression | Irritation | Negativism | Suspicion | Verbal aggression | Remorse | |
Gender - boys |
8,2 | 5,6 | 6 | 2,75 | 4,5 | 5,75 | 6,75 | 6,5 |
Gender - |
6,6 | 6,1 | 4,7 | 3,45 | 4,2 | 5,3 | 9 | 7,5 |
| Full family | 9 | 4,7 | 8 | 2 | 6,1 | 7,5 | 8,2 | 5,75 |
| Incomplete family | 6,75 | 6,1 | 5,75 | 2,75 | 5,75 | 4,5 | 6,1 | 5,3 |
Table 2 (percentage for each study group)
Type of aggression Control groups |
physical aggression | indirect aggression | Irritation | Negativism | Suspicion | Verbal aggression | Remorse | |
Gender - boys |
82% | 62,2% | 54,5% | 55% | 56,3% | 57,5% | 56,3% | 72,2% |
Gender - |
66% | 67,8% | 47% | 69% | 52,5% | 53% | 75% | 83,3% |
| Full family | 75% | 47% | 70% | 23% | 54,5% | 83,3% | 70% | 54,5% |
| Incomplete family | 68% | 67,8% | 54,5% | 31% | 57,5% | 47% | 54,5% | 53% |
Thus, the results of our study were as follows:
Physical aggression is 16% more pronounced in boys than in girls; and 7% prevails in complete families than in incomplete ones;
Indirect aggression is 5.6% more pronounced in females, and 20.8% more pronounced in single-parent families;
Irritation is more typical for boys - the difference of 7.5% and 15.5% is increased in complete families;
Negativism is more pronounced (by 14%) in girls and is 8% more pronounced in single-parent families;
Resentment among pupils is somewhat more pronounced than among pupils of the same adolescent age - the difference is 3.8% and 3% higher in single-parent families;
Suspicion is also more characteristic of the muscular type - the difference is 4.5% and 36.3% prevails in complete families than in incomplete ones;
Verbal aggression to a greater extent (by 18.7%) is characteristic of female students and by 15.5% prevails in complete families;
Remorse of conscience, feelings of guilt are 11.1% more pronounced in girls and 1.5% higher in complete families than incomplete ones;
Thus, according to the results of the study, we can say that in the control group, by gender, such aggressive and hostile reactions are more pronounced, such as:
physical aggression
Negativism
Verbal aggression
Under these types of aggressive behavior, in the data obtained, the greatest difference in this subgroup.
In the control group, according to the factor - a complete / incomplete family, the following reactions turned out to be more pronounced:
indirect aggression
Irritability
Suspicion
And verbal aggression.
Method #3 - Interpersonal Relationship Questionnaire (IRO)
At the final stage of our study, in the course of constructing the study, we conducted a survey of interpersonal relations (Appendix No. 3) among students, the following data were obtained:
scale Turn on I:
¾ "Ie - high" - suggests that the individual feels good among people and will tend to look for them - data were obtained: 12% among girls and 15% among boys, and 23% in complete families and 11% in single-parent families;
¾ "Ie - low" - means that the individual does not feel good among people and will have a tendency to avoid them: - 16.7% of girls and 18% of boys, 23% in complete families and 15% in single-parent families;
¾ "Iw - low" - suggests that the individual tends to communicate with a small number of people - 6.7% of girls and 8% of boys, as well as 10% in complete families and 9% in single-parent families;
¾ "Iw - high" - suggests that the individual has a strong need to be accepted by others and belong to them - 36% among girls and 23% among boys, as well as 25% in complete families and 23.8% in single-parent families;
2. Scale Control C:
¾ "Se - high" - means that the individual is trying to take responsibility, combined with a leading role - 56.7% for boys and 23% for girls, as well as 27% in complete families and 32% in single-parent families;
¾ "Se - low" - means that the individual avoids making decisions and taking responsibility - 8% among boys and 16% among girls, as well as 12% in complete families and 9% in single-parent families;
¾ "Cw - high" - reflects the need for dependence and fluctuations in decision-making - 3% among boys and 11% among girls, as well as 4% in complete families and 8% in single-parent families;
3. Scale Affect A:
¾ "Aw - low" - means that the individual is very careful when choosing people with whom he creates deeper emotional relationships - 23.3% among boys and 46% among girls, as well as 24% in complete families and 32% in single-parent families;
¾ "Ae - high" - suggests that the individual has a tendency to establish close sensual relationships - 26% in boys and 29% in girls, as well as 49.3% in complete families and 23% in single-parent families;
¾ "Ae - low" - means that the individual is very careful when establishing close intimate relationships - 11% among girls and 16% among boys, as well as 21% in complete families and 34% in single-parent families.
After the study, a correlation analysis was made of the data obtained between the methods and questionnaires for the entire sample (n = 60 people), the resulting amount r = = 0.805856187, by definition a strong correlation, or positive. These correlations indicate that there is a relationship between the indicators.
Thus, the research hypothesis is that aggressive behavior in adolescence can act as a way of adapting to modern social conditions. Aggressive behavior differs by gender, the level and type of aggression will be different in complete and incomplete families, because. family education is a factor in the manifestation of such behavior at this age, was confirmed.
Conclusion
The relevance of the issue considered in this course work is so great that the solution of this problem - the features of the aggressive behavior of adolescents, has already been repeatedly addressed, and will be addressed again and again in subsequent years.
In writing this work, I had certain goals and objectives, the content of which is described in the introductory section. Therefore, the first chapter as a whole highlights the theoretical aspects of studying the problem of aggressive behavior in development at the present stage. Here, the works of N.D. Levitov, T.G. Rumyantsev, L.Yu. Ivanov, S.A. Belichev, V.G. Petrov, N.N. Pavlov, and others were analyzed. Semenyuk.
The practical part of the course work contains two sections, the first of which is completely devoted to the description of the main goals and objectives of the study, the research hypothesis, in the same section the main methods of this study are consecrated. The next section describes the results obtained during the experiment. It also provides an analysis of quantitative indicators obtained with the help of primary statistical processing of the methods used.
The main provisions for defense are:
1. In modern historical, cultural and socio-economic conditions, aggression for a teenager is becoming one of the main ways to solve problems related to maintaining security.
2. Aggressive behavior in adolescence can act as a way of adapting to social conditions: adolescents learn aggressive patterns of behavior as socially recognized in everyday life, the media, in the family and in the reference group.
3. Aggressive behavior of adolescents has pronounced gender differences. The aggressive behavior of adolescent boys is not only a reaction due to social expectations, but also a reaction to the deprivation of the structural links of the personality's self-consciousness, responsible for the name, gender and claim to recognition. Adolescent boys have a wide range of aggressive reactions in situations of frustration. With age, adolescent boys tend to reduce the number of aggressive reactions to situations with frustration. The aggressive behavior of adolescent girls is a reaction that goes beyond social expectations, as well as a way to respond to the deprivation of the structural links of self-consciousness responsible for gender and the prospects for personal development. In adolescent girls, there is a general tendency of reactions with frustration about the deprivation of sex and the prospects for personality development. With age, adolescent girls tend to increase the number of aggressive reactions to situations with frustration.
The scientific novelty of the study lies in the methodological approach to the study of the aggressive behavior of adolescents. This study examines the aggressive behavior of adolescents in the context of changing cultural, historical and socio-economic conditions. At the same time, aggressive behavior is viewed through the context of a personal position.
The practical significance lies in the use of the results of the study in working with adolescents, and the theoretical significance lies in the introduction of the results of the study into the course of developmental psychology.
Bibliography
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Assinger test
(assessment of aggressiveness in a relationship)
A. Assinger's method determines whether a person is correct enough in relation to others and whether it is easy to communicate with him. For greater objectivity of the answers, you can conduct a mutual assessment when colleagues answer questions for each other. This will help to understand how true their self-assessment is.
Test material:
I. Do you tend to look for ways to reconcile after another official conflict?
1. Always.
2. Sometimes.
3. Never.
II. How do you behave in a critical situation?
1. Boil internally.
2. Remain completely calm.
3. You lose your temper.
III. What do your colleagues think of you?
1. Self-confident and envious.
2. Friendly.
3. Calm and not envious.
IV. How would you react if you were offered a responsible position?
1. Accept it with some apprehension.
2. Agree without hesitation.
3. Give it up for your own peace of mind.
V. How will you behave if one of your colleagues takes paper from your table without permission?
1. Give him "on the first number."
2. Force return.
3. Ask if he needs anything else.
VI. What words will you meet your husband (wife) if he (she) returned from work later than usual?
1. "What's holding you up so long?"
2. "Where do you hang out late?"
3. "I'm already starting to worry."
VII. How do you behave while driving a car?
1. Do you try to overtake the car that "showed you the tail"?
2. You don't care how many cars passed you.
3. Rush at such a speed that no one will catch up with you.
VIII. What do you consider your views on life?
1. Balanced.
2. Frivolous.
3. Extremely tough.
IX. What do you do if not everything works out?
1. Trying to shift the blame to someone else. 2. Humble yourself. 3. Become more careful in the future.
X. How would you react to a feuilleton about cases of promiscuity among today's youth?
1. "It's time to ban them from such entertainment."
2. "We must create an opportunity for them to have an organized and cultural holiday."
3. "And why do we bother with them so much?"
XI. How do you feel if the place you wanted to take went to someone else?
1. "And why did I spend my nerves on this?"
2. "It can be seen that his physiognomy is more pleasant for the boss." 3. "Maybe I can do it another time."
XII. How do you watch a scary movie?
1. Be afraid.
2. Bored.
3. Get genuine pleasure.
XIII. Are you late for an important meeting due to a traffic jam?
1. You will be nervous during the meeting.
2. Try to cause condescension partners.
3. Get upset.
XIV. How do you feel about your sports success?
1. Be sure to try to win.
2. Appreciate the pleasure of feeling young again.
3. Get very angry if you are unlucky.
XV. What would you do if you were badly served in a restaurant?
1. Endure, avoiding scandal.
2. Call the head waiter and make a remark to him.
3. Go with a complaint to the director of the restaurant.
XVI. How would you react if your child was bullied at school?
1. Talk to the teacher.
2. Make a scandal to the parents of the "juvenile delinquent".
3. Advise your child to hit back.
XVII. What kind of person do you think you are?
1. Medium.
2. Self-confident.
3. Punching.
XVIII. What would you say to a subordinate you encountered at the door of the institution if he started apologizing to you?
1. "I'm sorry, it's my fault."
2. "Nothing, nothing."
3. "Can't you be more careful?!"
XIX. How would you react to a newspaper article about cases of hooliganism among young people?
1. "When, finally, concrete measures will be taken?!"
2. "We should introduce corporal punishment."
3. "You can't blame everything on the youth, the educators are also to blame!"
XX. Imagine that you have to be born again, but already as animals. Which animal would you prefer?
1. Tiger or leopard.
2. Domestic cat.
3. Bear.
Now look carefully at the underlined answers. Sum the response numbers.
RESULTS: 45 or more points.
You are unnecessarily aggressive, while often being unbalanced and cruel towards others. You hope to get to the top management, relying on your own methods, to succeed, sacrificing the interests of others. Therefore, you are not surprised by the hostility of your colleagues, but at the slightest opportunity you try to punish them for it.
36-44 points. You are moderately aggressive, but you go through life quite successfully, because you have enough healthy ambition and self-confidence.
35 points or less. You are overly peaceful, which is due to insufficient confidence in your own strengths and capabilities. This does not mean that you, like a blade of grass, bend under any breeze. And yet more determination will not hurt you! If you scored three points on seven or more questions and one point each on less than seven questions, then the outbursts of your aggressiveness are more destructive than constructive. You are prone to ill-conceived actions and fierce discussions. You treat people dismissively and with your behavior provoke conflict situations that you could well have avoided.
If you get one point for seven or more questions and three points for less than seven questions, then you are overly closed. This does not mean that you do not have outbursts of aggressiveness, but you suppress them too carefully.
Bass-Darky Method (MBD)
Test instructions: The test consists of 75 statements, to which the subject must answer "yes" or "no".
Test material:
1. At times I can't handle the urge to harm others.
2. Sometimes I gossip about people I don't like.
3. I get irritated easily but calm down quickly.
4. If they don’t ask me in a good way, I won’t do it.
5. I don't always get what I'm supposed to.
6. I don't know what people say about me behind my back.
7. If I disapprove of my friends' behavior, I let them feel it.
8. When I happened to deceive someone, I experienced excruciating remorse
9. It seems to me that I am not able to hit a person.
10. I never get irritated enough to throw things.
11. I am always indulgent to other people's shortcomings.
12. If I don’t like the established rule, I want to break it.
13. Others almost always know how to take advantage of favorable circumstances.
14. I am wary of people who treat me a little more friendly than I expected.
15. I often disagree with people.
16. Sometimes thoughts come to my mind that I am ashamed of.
17. If someone hits me first, I won't answer him.
18. When I get irritated, I slam doors.
19. I am much more irritable than I think.
20. If someone imagines himself to be the boss, I always act against him.
21. I am a little saddened by my fate
22. I think that many people do not like me.
23. I can't resist arguing if people don't agree with me.
24. People who dodge work should feel guilty.
25. Someone who insults me and my family asks for a fight
26. I am not capable of rude jokes.
27. I am furious when I am mocked.
28. When people pretend to be bosses, I do everything so that they do not become arrogant
29. Almost every week I see someone I don't like.
30. Quite a few people envy me
31. I demand that people respect me.
32. I am depressed by the fact that I do little for my parents.
33. People who harass you all the time are worth getting punched in the nose.
34. I am never gloomy with anger
35. If they treat me worse than I deserve, I don't get upset
36. If someone pisses me off, I don't pay attention.
37. Although I don’t show it, I sometimes get jealous
38. Sometimes it seems to me that they are laughing at me.
39. Even if I'm angry, I don't use "strong" expressions.
40. I want my sins to be forgiven
41. I rarely fight back, even if someone hits me.
42. When it doesn't work out my way, I sometimes get offended.
43. Sometimes people annoy me just by their presence.
44. There are no people I truly hate
45. My principle: "Never trust "strangers"
46. If someone annoys me, I am ready to say what I think of him.
47. I do a lot of things that I later regret.
48. If I get angry, I can hit someone
49. Since childhood, I have never shown outbursts of anger.
50. I often feel like a powder keg about to explode.
51. If everyone knew how I feel, I would be considered a person who is not easy to work with
52. I always think about what secret reasons make people do something nice for me.
53. When someone yells at me, I start yelling back.
54. Failure makes me sad
55. I fight no less and no more than others
56. I can remember cases when I was so angry that I grabbed a thing that came under my arm and broke it
57. Sometimes I feel ready to start a fight first.
58. Sometimes I feel that life is treating me unfairly.
59. I used to think that most people were telling the truth, but now I don't believe it.
60. I swear only out of anger
61. When I do wrong, my conscience torments me.
62. If I need to use physical force to protect my rights, I use it
63. Sometimes I express my anger by banging my fist on the table.
64. I can be rude to people I don't like.
65. I have no enemies who would like to harm me
66. I don’t know how to put a person in his place, even if he deserves it.
67. I often think that I lived wrong.
68. I know people who can get me into a fight.
69. I don't get upset over little things.
70. It rarely occurs to me that people are trying to anger or insult me.
71. I often only threaten people, although I do not intend to carry out threats.
72. Lately I've become a bore
74. I usually try to hide my bad attitude towards people.
75. I'd rather agree with something than argue
Keys:
Responses are scored on eight scales as follows:
1. Physical aggression:"yes" = 1, "no" = 0 questions: 1,25,31,41,48,55,62,68, "no" = 1, "yes" = 0 questions: 9.7
2. Indirect aggression:"yes" = 1, "no" = 0 questions: 2,10,18,34,42,56,63, "no" = 1, "yes" = 0 questions: 26.49
3. Irritation:"yes" = 1, "no" = 0 questions: 3,19,27,43,50,57,64,72, "no" = 1, "yes" = 0 questions: 11,35,69
4. Negativism:"yes" = 1, "no" = 0 questions: 4,12,20,28, "no" = 1, "yes" = 0 questions: 36
5. Resentment:"yes" = 1, "no" = 0 questions: 5,13,21, 29, 37,44,51,58
6. Suspicion:"yes" = 1, "no" = 0 questions: 6,14,22,30,38,45, 52.59, "no" = 1, "yes" = 0 questions: 33,66,74, 75
7. Verbal aggression:"yes" = 1, "no" = 0 questions: 7, 15, 23, 31, 46,53,60,71,73, "no" = 1, "yes" = 0 questions: 33, 66, 74, 75
8. Guilt:"yes" = 1, "no" = 0 questions: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 47, 54,61,67
The hostility index includes scales 5 and 6, and the aggressiveness index (both direct and motivational) includes scales 1, 3, 7.
The norm of aggressiveness is the value of its index, equal to 21 plus or minus 4, and hostility - 6.5-7 plus or minus 3.
Interpersonal Relationship Inventory (IRO)
Instructions for the questionnaire:“The questionnaire is designed to assess the typical ways you relate to people. Basically, there are no right or wrong answers here. Every true answer is correct. Sometimes people tend to answer questions the way they think they should behave. However, in this case, we are interested in how you behave in reality. Some questions are very similar to each other, but still they imply different things. Please answer each question separately, without regard to other questions. There is no time limit for answers, but don't spend too much time thinking about any question.
Please be as careful as possible.
For each statement, select the answer that best suits you. Write the answer number to the left of each line.
Usually - 1 Often - 2 Sometimes - 3 Occasionally - 4 Rarely - 5 Never - 7
Test material:
1. I strive to be with everyone.
2. Letting others decide what needs to be done
3. Become a member of various groups
4. Strive to have close relationships with the rest of the group.
5. When the opportunity presents itself, I am inclined to become a member of interesting organizations.
6. I admit that others have a strong influence on my work.
7. I strive to join informal social life.
8. Strive to have close and cordial relationships with others.
9. Seek to involve others in my plans.
10. I let others judge what I do.
11. I strive to be among people.
12. I strive to establish close and cordial relationships with others.
13. I tend to join others whenever something is done together.
14. Easily submit to others.
15. I try to avoid loneliness.
16. I strive to take part in joint activities.
For each of the following statements, select one of the answers indicating the number of people who may influence you or who may be affected by your behavior
17. I strive to be friendly with others.
18. Let others decide what needs to be done.
19. My personal attitude towards others is cold and indifferent.
20. I leave it to others to direct the course of events.
21. Strive to have close relationships with other people
22. I admit that others have a strong influence on my work.
23. Seek to establish close and cordial relationships with others.
24. I let others judge what I do.
25. With others I behave coldly and indifferently.
26. I easily obey others.
27. I strive to have close and cordial relationships with people around me.
For each of the following statements, select one of the answers indicating the number of people who can influence you, or who are usually affected by the consequences of your behavior.
APPLIES TO:(1) Most people(2) Many people(3) Some people(4) A few people(5) One or two people(6) None of the people
28. I love it when others invite me to participate in something.
29. I like it when other people treat me directly and cordially.
30. I strive to have a strong influence on the activities of others.
31. I like it when others invite me to participate in their activities.
32. I like it when others treat me directly.
33. In the company of others, I strive to lead the course of events.
34. I like it when others include me in their activities.
35. I love it when people around me behave with restraint and coldness.
36. I strive for others to do as I want.
37. I like it when others invite me to take part in their debates (discussions).
38. I love it when people around me are friendly.
39. I like it when others invite me to take part in some kind of joint activity.
40. I like it when others treat me with restraint.
For each of the following statements, choose one of the following answers: Usually - 1 Often - 2 Sometimes - 3 Occasionally - 4 Rarely - 5 Never - 7
41. In society, I try to play a dominant role.
42. I like it when others invite me to take part in something.
43. I like it when others treat me directly.
44. I strive for others to do what I want.
45. I like it when others invite me to take part in their activities.
46. I like it when they treat me coldly and reservedly.
47. I strive to influence what others do.
48. I like it when someone invites me to take part in an activity.
49. I like it when people around me are direct and cordial.
50. In society, I try to manage the course of events.
51. I like being invited to take part in the activities of others.
52. I am quite satisfied when others treat me with restraint.
53. I try to make others do what I want.
54. In society, I usually manage the course of events.
The results of the survey are evaluated using the "key". Each answer that matches the "key" is assigned one point. The sum of points is the primary assessment obtained on the appropriate scale. Thus, scores are obtained on all the main six scales (Ie, Iw, Ce, Cw, Ae, Aw), which are integers in the range from 0 to 9.
"Key" for processing questionnaire scales
On the left are the points of the scales, on the right are the numbers of correct (working) answers. If the answer matches the key, the answer is estimated at 1 point, if it does not match - 0 points.
| Ie | Se | Ae |
| 1. 1234 3. 12345 5. 123457. 1239. 12311. 1213. 115. 116. 1 | 30.123433.123436.12341.1234544.123447.1234550.1253.123454.123 | 4. 128. 1212. 117. 12319. 345621. 1 23. 125. 345627. 1 |
| Iw | cw | Aw |
| 28. 1231. 1234. 1237. 139. 142. 12345. 12348. 123451. 123 | 2. 123456. 12310. 12314. 12318. 123420.123422. 123424. 1226. 12 | 29. 132. 1235. 5638. 12340. 5643. 146. 45649. 152. 56 |
The scores range from 0 to 9. The closer they approach extreme scores, the more useful the following general description of behavior is: a) inclusion of Ie - low - means that the individual does not feel good among people and will have a tendency to avoid them; Ie - high - suggests that the individual feels good among people and will tend to look for them; Iw - low - suggests that the individual tends to communicate with a small number of people; Iw - high - suggests that the individual has a strong need to be accepted by others and to belong to them; b) control. Ce - low - means that the individual avoids making decisions and taking responsibility; Ce - high - means that the individual is trying to take responsibility, combined with a leading role; Cw - low - suggests that the individual does not take control of himself; Cw - high - reflects the need for dependence and fluctuations in decision making; c) affect. Ae - low - means that the individual is very careful when establishing close intimate relationships; Ae - high - suggests that the individual has a tendency to establish close sensual relationships; Aw - low - means that the individual is very careful when choosing people with whom he creates a deeper emotional relationship; Aw - high - is typical of individuals who demand that others indiscriminately establish close emotional relationships with him. The degree of applicability of the above descriptions depends on the value of the scores: 0-1 and 8-9 are extremely low and extremely high scores, and the behavior will be compulsive. 2-3 and 6-7 are low and high scores, and the behavior of the faces will be described in the appropriate direction. 4-5 are borderline scores, and individuals may tend to behave as described for both low and high raw scores.
Further, when analyzing the data, attention is paid to the ratio, a combination of scores on the main scales, which allows you to calculate the index of the volume of interactions (e + w) and the index of inconsistency of interpersonal behavior (e - w) within and between individual Sweets of interpersonal needs. The data obtained also make it possible to determine the coefficient of mutual compatibility in the Dyad. It is calculated as follows; if we denote the expressed bringing of individual A in a particular area by the symbol e1, and the individual B - by the symbol e2, and the required behavior of these persons is w1 and w2, respectively, then the compatibility coefficient has the form K = [e1 - w2] + [e2 - w1] .
Interpreting survey results
It is advisable to carry out the general course of data interpretation in the following order. First of all, the estimates obtained on the main scales are analyzed. The characterization of the subject's behavior is given on the basis of the following descriptions:
Ie - pronounced behavior in the area of "inclusion". High values on this scale mean an active desire of a person to belong to different groups, to be included, to be among people as often as possible; the desire to accept others, so that they, in turn, take part in his activities, show interest in him. Low values indicate that the individual does not feel good around people and will tend to avoid contact.
Iw - desired behavior in the "include" area. High values on this scale testify to the desire of the individual to be invited by others to take part in their affairs, "invite", make efforts to be in his society, even in those cases when he himself does nothing for this. Low values suggest that the person tends to communicate with a small number of people, does not show contact-seeking behavior, the desire to belong to groups and communities.
Ce - expressed behavior in the field of "control". High values indicate the desire of the individual to control and influence others, to take leadership and decision-making for himself and others. Low - an indicator that the individual actively avoids making decisions and taking responsibility.
Cw - required behavior" in the field of "control". High values reflect the need of the individual to depend, in anticipation of control and guidance from others, indicate an unwillingness to take responsibility. Low values suggest that the individual does not accept control over himself.
Ae - expressed behavior in the area of "affect". High values reflect the desire of a person to be in close, intimate relationships with others and to show their warm and friendly feelings towards them. The lower ones are an indicator of great caution and selectivity in establishing close sensual relationships.
Aw is the desired behavior in the area of "affect". High indicators indicate the individual's need for others to strive to be emotionally closer to him, share their intimate feelings, and involve him in deep emotional relationships. Low scores mean that a person is very careful when choosing the people with whom he creates an intimate, deep relationship.
The number of points that can be scored on each of the six scales of the questionnaire ranges from 0 to 9. The degree of applicability of the above descriptions depends on the value of the points; 0-1 and 8-9 are extremely low and extremely high scores, while the individual's behavior becomes compulsive; 2-3 and 6-7 - low and high scores, the individual's behavior can be described in the appropriate direction; 4 - 5 - borderline scores and in human behavior tendencies can be observed that are characteristic of both high and low levels. For a more accurate assessment of the results obtained, it is necessary to take into account the normative data of the corresponding population. The interpretation of the results is carried out on the basis of the previously described characteristics of needs and types of interpersonal behavior. In addition, scores on individual scales should not be interpreted separately from each other. The way an individual is oriented in one area or another significantly affects (positively or negatively) his interpersonal activity in other areas. For example, a strong desire to form close emotional relationships (high A) may be blocked by the subject's inability to make contact (low I).
The next step is to interpret the indexes. The volume index of interactions (е + w) in each of the areas I, C, A characterizes the intensity of contacts psychologically preferred by a person, reflecting the intensity of behavior aimed at satisfying the corresponding interpersonal need. The index values can vary from 0 to 18. The interpersonal orientation of an individual within each area I, C, E - is determined by the difference between the expressed (e) and required (w) behavior and is expressed in a certain value of the index of inconsistency of interpersonal behavior, which can vary from 0 to 9. The larger its value, i.e. the greater the gap between one's own behavior and the behavior required from others, the greater the likelihood of internal conflicts and frustration in this area.
When interpreting the coefficients of mutual compatibility, it is necessary to proceed from the relevant theoretical concepts. In the theory of W. Schutz, compatibility is interpreted as such a feature of relations between two or more people, which leads to mutual satisfaction of interpersonal needs. Every individual in every interpersonal area desires to behave in a certain way and allows partners to behave towards him in a certain way. Mutual compatibility implies that the expressed behavior of one member of the dyad must match the required behavior of another member, and vice versa. That is, to determine the measure of mutual satisfaction of interpersonal needs, it is necessary to take into account the following: whether the individual expresses. A behavior required by individual B; whether individual A is satisfied with the behavior expressed by individual B. Mutual compatibility can be quantified by comparing the intensity of the behavior in terms of e and w. The compatibility coefficient reaches scores from 0 to 18. The closer the score is to 0, the higher the mutual compatibility in the dyad.
