What is a zip code example. What are stock indices and why are they needed?

Often people who rarely send or never send letters, postcards, parcels, do not know how to write a postal address correctly.

We will discuss this moment, at the same time we will consider examples of how to fill out an envelope or an empty form.

All about recipient index

What is meant by postal address? Let's imagine that you want to send a letter to a close friend in the village of Ilyino, which is located thirty kilometers from the regional center. You yourself live in Moscow. Let's say that you know exactly the address of a friend, but this is not enough. On the envelope and in the form for parcels there is a field with six numbers written. It is very important to know what zip code the address is. It is the very six numbers that should be written in the first place. Without an index (code stamp), a parcel, parcel post, ordinary or registered letter will not be accepted by postal employees. Therefore, be sure to find out exactly what index the district post office has, which sends letters to the village of Ilyino. Here you need to be careful, because if you write the index of another post office, then the letter may not reach at all. The post office works only with those addresses that are closest to it. There are exceptions when a transfer is made from the wrong department to the right one.

And now consider the example of a postal address, after writing the index, which is written twice. By the way, this point is worth noting, because often people who send a letter for the first time are confused by the fact that two fields are printed on the envelope: one at the bottom, immediately below the address, the second at the bottom in the form of numbers printed with dots. You need to fill in both a small window and a large one with the same index number. On the back of the envelope there is a sample of how to write the numbers correctly.

Sender and recipient

On the envelope, as well as on the package or box with the parcel, there are lines with the phrases “from whom” and “to whom”. It is quite clear that whoever sends the letter must write their mailing address on a form labeled "from". Accordingly, the one who sends is the sender. As a rule, when sending a parcel, a check is issued with the address of the sender and recipient, as well as the cost of the shipment, and the postal identifier. But we are now only interested in the sender and the recipient. Thus, the recipient is the one to whom the parcel or letter is sent.

It is very important to understand this, as the mail may ask a question, for example: “Do you know the address of the recipient?” Or they will ask who is the sender.

How and with what to fill in the address

The postal address is a crucial moment when sending letters and parcels. In no case should data be allowed to blur or be erased. In addition, you need to write in legible handwriting and in large print.

Therefore, it is unacceptable to fill the envelopes with a pencil or bright pens, felt-tip pens. It is recommended to use black or blue gel, ballpoint, fountain pens to fill the paper envelope. When sending a parcel in a Russian Post branded package or on a form with a glossy surface, it is advisable to use a black marker that is resistant to moisture and friction.

What is the address written on

Earlier we mentioned mainly letters and parcels. Now you should list the types of postal items in order to figure out which service to order from the post office.

Let's start with letters. In an envelope, you can send a postcard, several sheets of text or drawings, photographs and newspaper clippings. That is, small and flat items, but not of material value (money, documents, passport photocopies, etc.). How to write an address on a postal envelope so as not to spoil what's inside? It is advisable to sign the envelope while it is empty. Only then invest the necessary items.

If you need to send larger items, such as one small book, DVD or calendar, then you should ask the postal operator to send a parcel. Larger items are shipped in a bag or box. When filling out the package, you should also first write the correct postal address, and then put the items in it and seal it.

Registered letters also require correct filling. They are most often designed to send securities, so you should know the exact address and full name. recipient. Also be sure to write your return address.

The procedure for filling out the form with the address

Now let's look at the sequence of filling in the address. It is customary to first write the last name, first name and, if possible, patronymic of the person to whom you are sending the letter. For example, "Sergeev Ivan" or "Sergeev Ivan Alekseevich". It is acceptable to write initials. Letters arrive immediately in the mailbox without notification.

Next, in the line "Address" we write the street and the house (if the private sector) or the street, house, building / building (if any), apartment / room. Data must be accurate and numbers must be clear. You must not allow, for example, the number "7" to be read as the number "1", otherwise the postman may make a mistake and send the letter to the wrong place.

Then the name of the settlement is written (for example, the village of Sosenki, Ostashkovsky district, Tver region). It is allowed to write the address in a different sequence: region / region, district / regional center, settlement, street and house. You can also abbreviate "district" - "district", and "oblast" - "reg." and so on.

It should be reminded again that you must find out what the postal code is at the address of the recipient, and you also need to know yours in case of an unsuccessful delivery attempt.

Address examples

Above, you studied how letters and parcels for private citizens are filled out. Now we will consider the nuances of filling out items for military personnel and legal entities. Below is an example of a mailing address for a letter to a soldier.

We only note that the letter means a company. For example, a soldier serves in a sports company and the letter of his company is "A". Be sure to write full name. soldier.

Next, consider a letter to the enterprise. If the organization does not have a PO Box (PO Box), then the address is written to a specific department, to a specific official. Accordingly, the full name is indicated.

The importance of writing real names recipient

The postal address is an integral task of the sender, in addition, it is required to indicate the last name, first name and patronymic, both your own in the "From" column and in the "To" column. This is especially true for parcels and registered letters with parcels. The fact is that it is not the parcel itself or a registered letter that arrives in the mailbox of the recipient (addressee), but only a notification. It must be filled out (the recipient should enter their passport details), then come to the post office with a notification and a passport. If full name do not match, then the parcel or registered letter may not be delivered.

Is it necessary to write your address?

Some people make the mistake of leaving a letter without a return address. Also, you cannot send a parcel without writing your postcode, city, street and house. The fact is that letters and parcels may not reach the recipient, for example, a student has left one hostel for another or a soldier has been transferred from one military unit to another. In this case, the letter is returned to the recipient's post office, then marked "the recipient is not at the specified address" is returned to the sender.

You have learned that the mailing address is the key to getting the item and letter to the right person. Without an index and the exact coordinates of the recipient, the letter or parcel simply will not reach and will eventually be returned to the "native" post office. It is worth noting that letters and parcels without an index are invalid, as well as without a full address.

After reading a lot of literature on DBMS, some experience with MongoDB and browsing articles on databases, I have matured the desire to make a cheatsheet on indexes in relation to the database. And indexing is a rather interesting section of database theory, and most importantly, it is necessary in practice. Generally speaking, the golden rule of indexing is to have an index for every query.

By sort order

• Ordered- indexes in which the elements of the field (column) are ordered.
• Increasing
• Descending
• unordered are indices in which the elements are unordered.

By data source

• View indexes.
• Expression indexes- for example in PostgreSQL.

By impact on the data source

• Non-clustered index are the most typical representatives of the index family. Unlike cluster ones, they do not rebuild the physical structure of the table, but only organize links to the corresponding rows. To identify the desired row in the table, the non-clustered index organizes special pointers, including: information about the identification number of the file in which the row is stored; page identification number of the relevant data; the number of the searched line on the corresponding page; column content.
• Clustered index- The fundamental difference between a clustered index and indexes of other types is that when it is defined in a table, the physical location of the data is rebuilt in accordance with the structure of the index. The logical structure of the table in this case is more of a dictionary than an index. The data in a dictionary is physically ordered, such as alphabetically. Clustered indexes can provide significant data lookup performance improvements even when compared to regular indexes. The performance increase is especially noticeable when working with serial data.

By structure

• B*-trees
  
• B+-trees
  
• B-trees
• Hashes.

By quantity

• Simple index (single key index)- built on one field.
  Composite (multi-key, composite) index - is built on several fields. The order of the fields is important (for example, in MongoDB).
  Index with Included Columns - A non-clustered index that additionally contains, in addition to key columns, also non-key ones.
• Master index (primary key index) is the index key that currently manages the table. A table cannot be sorted by multiple index keys at the same time. Although, if the same table is open simultaneously in several workspaces, then each copy of the table can have its own main index assigned.

According to the content

• Unique index- consists of many unique field values.
  A dense index (NoSQL) is an index where each document in the indexed collection has a corresponding entry in the index, even if the document does not have an indexed field.
• Sparse Index (NoSQL)- one in which only those documents are presented for which the indexed key has some specific value (exists).
• Spatial index- Optimized to describe geographic location. It is a multi-key index consisting of latitude and longitude.
• Composite spatial index- an index that includes, in addition to latitude and longitude, some other meta-data (for example, tags). But geographic coordinates should come first.
• Full text (inverted) index- a dictionary that lists all the words and indicates in which places they occur. If there is such an index, it is enough to search for the necessary words in it and then a list of documents in which they occur will immediately be obtained.
• Hash indexes- they involve storing not the values ​​themselves, but their hashes, due to which the size (and, accordingly, the speed of their processing) decreases (and, accordingly, the speed of their processing) indexes from large fields. Thus, when querying using HASH indexes, it will be compared not the searched value with the field value, but the hash of the searched value with the hashes of the fields.
  Due to the non-linearity of hash functions, this index cannot be sorted by value, which makes it impossible to use greater than/less than and "is null" comparisons. In addition, since hashes are not unique, collision resolution methods are applied to matching hashes.
• Bitmap index- the bit index method is to create separate bitmaps (a sequence of 0 and 1) for each possible value of a column, where each bit corresponds to a row with an indexed value, and its value equal to 1 means that the record corresponding to the bit position contains an indexed value for this column or property.
• Reverse index- this is also a B-tree index but with a reversed key, used mainly for monotonically increasing values ​​(for example, an auto-increment identifier) ​​in OLTP systems in order to remove competition for the last leaf block of the index, because by flipping the value, two adjacent index entries fall into different index blocks. It cannot be used for range searching.
• Function-based index ( calculated field index) — an index whose keys store the result of user-defined functions. Functional indexes are often built on fields whose values ​​are pre-processed before being compared in an SQL command. For example, when comparing string data in a case-insensitive manner, the UPPER function is often used. Creating a functional index with the UPPER function improves the efficiency of such comparisons. In addition, a functional index can help to implement any other missing type of indexes of a given DBMS (except, perhaps, a bit index, for example, Hash for Oracle)
• Primary index— a unique index on the primary key field.
• secondary index- index on other fields (except for the primary key field).
• XML index is a sliced ​​materialized representation of XML Binary Large Objects (BLOBs) in a column with an xml data type.

According to the update mechanism

• Fully configurable- when adding an element, the entire index is rebuilt.
• Refillable (balancing)- when adding elements, the index is partially rebuilt (for example, one of the branches) and periodically balanced.

By indexed content coverage

• Fully covering (complete) index- covers all the contents of the indexed object.
• Partial Index is an index built on a part of the table that satisfies a certain condition of the index itself. This index was created to reduce the size of the index.
• Incremental (Delta) index- a small part of the data (delta) is indexed, as a rule, after a certain time. Used for intensive recording. For example, a full index is rebuilt once a day, while a delta index is built every hour. In essence, this is a partial index by timestamp.
• Real-time index- a special kind of delta index in Sphinx, characterized by high construction speed. Designed for frequently changing data.

Indexes in clustered systems

• Global index- index over the entire contents of all shards (sections).
• Segment index- global index on the field-segmented key (shard key). Used to quickly determine the segment (shard) on which data is stored in the process of routing a request in a database cluster.
• Local index- index on the contents of only one shard.

If there are inaccuracies, corrections - write in the comments. I hope this "cheat sheet" will be useful to someone.

Everyone at least once in his life has come across the concept of stock indices or, at least, heard that "the RTS and MICEX indices have updated their maximum since April." But what is hidden behind this concept, and why do we need stock indices at all? Today we will take a closer look at this issue.

What is an index

A stock index is an indicator of changes in the prices of a certain group of securities. You can think of a stock index as a "basket" of stocks grouped together on some basis.

The most important thing when studying an index is what stocks or bonds it is formed from. It is the set of securities included in the list, on the basis of which the index is calculated, that determines what information can be obtained by observing the dynamics of this index.

Why indexes are needed

In general, the main purpose of compiling a stock index is to create an indicator with which investors could characterize the general direction and "speed" of movement of stock quotes of companies in a particular industry.

Studying the dynamics of indices helps exchange traders to understand the impact on quotes of certain events - if, for example, an increase in oil prices occurs, then it is logical to expect an increase in quotes of all oil companies. However, shares of different companies grow at different rates (and some may not grow at all) - the index helps to understand the general trend of the market segment without the need to assess the position of many disparate companies.

Comparison of indices among themselves gives an understanding of how different sectors of the economy are traded in the market in comparison with each other.

A bit of history

The first widely used index was the one created by Charles Dow in 1884. Its calculation was carried out according to the quotes of 11 largest (and with the largest turnover of shares on the stock exchange) at that time US transport companies - the index was called the Dow Jones Transportation Average. In 1896, the index, which today is known as the Dow Jones Industrial Average, appeared, which brought together the main industrial companies of America.

The word "industrial" (Industrial) in today's realities is nothing more than a tribute to tradition, since the indicator itself has long included companies that are not directly related to this industry.

Index Producers

Another way to classify indices is to distribute them by compiler. Indices can be "agent" when they are calculated by special agencies (for example, Standard & Poor's S&P indices). The second option is stock indices created, in fact, by stock exchanges. In the US, this is NASDAQ, and in Russia, the two main stock indices were calculated by the MICEX and RTS exchanges, which have now merged into a single "Moscow Exchange".

In addition, a brokerage company can also be a compiler of indices. For example, ITinvest calculates its own indices, among which there are, for example, correlation indices (futures on the RTS index and the MICEX index, futures on the RTS index and the S&P 500 index), which are used to trade futures on the RTS index, "glued" futures and other indicators.

What do the indexes show?

The list of shares whose quotes are used to build the index is formed according to certain criteria, depending on the purpose of compiling a particular index.

The method of calculating indices implies the inclusion of financial instruments that have similar characteristics. In particular, the share capital of companies whose shares are included in the index should not differ by orders of magnitude.

In general, it is believed that the movement of stock prices of well-known and large companies also reflects the dynamics of trading in smaller financial instruments from the same industry (this is an important clarification). Sectoral stock indices are needed in order to create hypotheses about the price dynamics of different companies in the same industry, even those not included in the index itself. Accordingly, sectoral indices help investors evaluate the prospects of investing in companies of a particular sector of the economy at a particular point in time.

Examples of sectoral indices can be well illustrated by the Dow Jones family, which includes:

• The DJIA Industrial Index is calculated based on the stock prices of the 30 largest companies from leading US industries.
• Transport index DJTA - covers the shares of the 20 largest US transport companies.
• Utility index DJUA - shares of 15 companies in the field of electricity and gas supply. engaged in gas and electricity supply.

There is also a composite index (DJCA - Dow Jones Composite Average) - an indicator based on the values ​​of the previous three indices.

There are also specialized exchanges for companies united on one or another basis. For example, the exchange of high-tech companies NASDAQ in the United States.

Indices are often compiled on a regional basis - for example, you can make lists of shares of companies representing a particular country or groups of countries (for example, the European Union or BRIC-type blocs). Similar to industry indices, these indicators help investors better understand the state of affairs in the markets of specific regions and countries,

An example of a regional index is the Morgan Stanley Capital International family of indices (famous among MSCI investors). MSCI country indices are calculated on the shares of companies in a particular country. There are also indices for individual markets - developed and emerging. For example, the MDCI Developed Market Index includes shares of companies from 24 countries where the stock markets are recognized as developed, and the MSCI Emerging Market Index, respectively, includes shares of companies from 27 countries that are classified as developing.

Current events

At the end of last week, many business media reported that the world's leading index providers plan to exclude Russian companies from their own indexes. In particular, as Vedomosti reported, one of the most famous index compilers, MSCI, announced the launch of a number of new indexes that do not include Russia. This was done in order to help investors avoid investing in a country that is under EU and US sanctions.

Another major provider, S&P Dow Jones, also announced that it is consulting on the possible exclusion of Russian companies.

Experts interviewed by Vedomosti generally consider such a decision to be a blow to the Russian economy, since under the current conditions investors will not invest in domestic companies.

However, Sergey Egishyants, chief economist at ITinvest, is convinced that not everything is so scary:

There is only one meaning [of such sanctions] - a certain number of Western investment funds invest money not in some shares specially chosen by them, but in some index, where the developers drive firms according to a certain attribute (industry, geography, economic status, etc.) "Purchase" of such an index means, in fact, the acquisition of shares of all the companies included in it in the proportion that is set for them by the manufacturer of the index. Accordingly, the exclusion of corporations from it means that now these "index" funds no longer buy shares of said corporations, and even sell off those that were already in their possession.

Those. for our stock market, this is simply another wave of flight of foreign money - and this time purely speculative (i.e., not participating in the processes in the real economy): of course, this is unpleasant (the market is falling - although not much, because there is not so much money like that here anymore) - but in principle it’s even good, because the less “hot” global money, the less the amplitude of market fluctuations during various shocks.

The economy does not suffer from such somersaults at all - in a sense, it is simply not affected by these inflows and outflows: they all go past the real sector - and only a drop in the turnover of companies in the financial sector can somehow be considered a negative consequence for the national economy.

It’s just that in recent years the share of this sector in the overall GDP growth has been very large - it is in the lead by a wide margin: it’s another matter that these are mostly not brokers, but banks distributing an insane amount of consumer loans - although this process is already curtailing. In general, nothing terrible happened.

How to use indexes

In general, the existence of an index serves several purposes. They can be used for:

• Get an idea about the general dynamics of stock quotes of a certain group (companies, countries, industries, etc.). Often this data is used to make speculative transactions.
• There are derivative instruments based on the index itself - for example, there is a futures contract for the RTS index. Most often, such contracts are used to hedge risks (for more details, see our

The address must be written legibly.

The recipient's address must be written in the lower right corner of the item. The sender's address is in the top left.

The address indicates:

• Full name of the recipient (in the format "Last Name First Name Middle Name") or organization name (short or full)
• Street name, house number, apartment number
• Locality name
• Name of the district, region, territory or republic
• The name of the country
• PO Box number, if any (in the format "PO Box 15")
• Postal code according to the sample:

Stamps should be pasted in the upper right corner of the address side of the envelope, postcard, packaging. If this corner is occupied, stick the stamps a little lower.

Sometimes the stamp may be printed directly on the envelope or postcard.

The letter A printed on the envelope allows you to send a simple letter within Russia weighing up to 20 g without gluing additional stamps.

applied to the envelope the letter D allows you to send a registered letter within Russia weighing up to 20 g without gluing additional stamps.

applied to a postcard letter B allows you to send this postcard in Russia without gluing additional stamps.

Having glued stamps for the required amount, you can send postcards and envelopes with the letters A, B and D and abroad.