Question 01. What were the reasons for the acceleration of scientific and technological development at the beginning of the 20th century?
Answer. Causes:
1) the scientific achievements of the twentieth century are based on all previous centuries of the development of science, the accumulated knowledge and developed methods that made it possible to make a breakthrough;
2) by the beginning of the 20th century, there existed (as in the Middle Ages) a single scientific world, within which the same ideas circulated, which was not so much hindered by national borders - science to some extent (although not completely) became international;
3) many discoveries were made at the intersection of sciences, new scientific disciplines emerged (biochemistry, geochemistry, petrochemistry, chemical physics, etc.);
4) thanks to the glorification of progress, the career of a scientist became prestigious, it was elected by many more young people;
5) fundamental science moved closer to technological progress, began to bring improvements in production, weapons, etc., therefore it began to be financed by business and governments interested in further progress.
Question 02. How are the transition to large-scale industrial production and scientific and technological progress related?
Answer. Scientific and technological progress made it possible to develop a new generation of machine tools, thanks to which qualitatively new production facilities were opened. New types of engines - electric and internal combustion - helped to make a particularly big step. It is noteworthy that the first internal combustion engines were not developed for moving mechanisms, but for stationary machines, as they ran on natural gas, therefore they had to be connected to pipes that supplied this gas.
Question 03 Compare them with ways to increase labor productivity in previous historical periods.
Answer. Labor productivity increased significantly due to the improvement of its organization (for example, the introduction of a conveyor belt). In this way, labor productivity has been increased before, the most famous example being the transition to manufactory. But scientific and technological progress has opened up another possibility: due to the increase in the efficiency of engines. More powerful motors made it possible to produce more products, while using the labor of a smaller number of workers and at lower costs (due to which investments in the purchase of new equipment quickly paid off).
Question 04. What is the impact on public life in the first half of the XX century. had the development of transport?
Answer. The development of transport has made the world "closer", due to the fact that it has reduced the time of travel even between distant points. It is not for nothing that one of the novels by J. Verne about the triumph of progress is called “Around the World in 80 Days”. This made the workforce more mobile. In addition, this improved the connection between the metropolises and the colonies, and made it possible to use the latter more widely and more efficiently.
Question 05. What was the role of Russians in the scientific and technological progress of the early 20th century?
Answer. Russians in science:
1) P.N. Lebedev discovered the patterns of wave processes;
2) N.E. Zhukovsky and S.A. Chaplygin made discoveries in the theory and practice of aircraft construction;
3) K.E. Tsiolkovsky made theoretical calculations for the achievement and exploration of space;
4) A.S. Popov is considered by many to be the inventor of the radio (although others give this honor to G. Marconi or N. Tesla);
5) I.P. Pavlov received the Nobel Prize for research on the physiology of digestion;
6) I.I. Mechnikov received the Nobel Prize for research in the field of immunology and infectious diseases
Describe the main directions of scientific and technological progress in the late XIX - first half of the XX century. Give examples of the impact of scientific achievements on changing the face of the world
- Electricity
- Construction materials
- Transport
- Aviation
- Jet aviation and rocket technology
- Radio electronics
- Medicine
The first electric city trams, the subway, electric street lighting appeared. Electrification of all spheres of life.
Reveal the origins of increasing labor productivity in industry at the beginning of the 20th century.
- The need to produce a large number of technologically complex products
- The division of the manufacturing process of complex products into a number of relatively simple operations performed in a clear sequence in a certain time. (Idea engineer Friedrich Taylor)
- Creation of conveyor production
- Increasing the competitiveness of production
Show how the need to modernize production contributed to the formation of monopolies, the merging of banking and industrial capital.
The technical re-equipment of production and transport, the creation of industry giants, scientific laboratories required significant funds. Monopolies have developed. The role of banks, which also merged and became ever larger, increased. In search of money, entrepreneurs borrowed funds from banks against the security of shares in their companies. Banks gradually received the right to a decisive voice in the management of production. This is how banking capital merged with industrial capital.
What forms of monopolistic associations do you know?
- A cartel is an association of several enterprises of the same sphere of production, whose participants retain ownership of the means of production and the product produced, industrial and commercial independence, and agree on the share of each in the total production volume, prices, markets.
- A syndicate is an association of a number of enterprises in the same industry, the participants of which retain the right to the means of production, but lose ownership of the product produced, which means that they retain production, but lose their commercial independence. In syndicates, the sale of goods is carried out by a common sales office.
- A trust is an association of a number of enterprises in one or more industries, the participants of which lose their ownership of the means of production and the product produced, their industrial and commercial independence, i.e. combine production, marketing, finance, management, and for the amount of invested capital, the owners of individual enterprises receive trust shares, which give them the right to take part in management and appropriate a corresponding part of the trust's profit.
- A concern is an association of tens and even hundreds of enterprises in various industries, transport, trade, whose participants lose ownership of the means of production and the product produced, and the main company exercises financial control over other participants in the association.
- Conglomerate - monopolistic associations formed by absorbing the profits of diversified enterprises that do not have technical and production unity.
Labor productivity is a problem of extreme complexity, the study of which is devoted to countless diverse studies (domestic and foreign, relatively historically distant and modern). Despite the huge number of works devoted to this problem, in economic theory there is still no well-established understanding of labor productivity as an economic category with its inherent properties or features.
In studies of labor productivity, two approaches can be conventionally distinguished: factorial and measuring, each of which is predominant in the works of different authors. With the factorial approach, labor productivity is treated as one of the factors (often the most important) of production and economic growth. With a measuring approach, labor productivity is interpreted only as one of the indicators (often the most important) of the qualitative productivity of production.
The notion of labor productivity as the most important factor in economic growth seems to us to be the deepest theoretical misconception that has a huge negative impact on economic practice, since it distorts the understanding of the true causes (factors) of economic growth. In a market economy, as you know, any factor of production exists before the start of the production process and can be bought on the market at a certain price. Labor productivity: (1) does not exist prior to production; (2) is not an object of purchase - sale and, therefore, has no price; (3) serves as a qualitative indicator of the result of a certain amount of labor expended under a given technology, organization, stimulation, and other similar conditions. An illustration of the validity of such a conclusion is the fact that each time labor productivity is declared a factor in economic growth, explanations are usually followed that the growth of labor productivity depends on technical progress, the scale of production, forms of labor stimulation, etc.
However, it should be noted that the factorial approach to labor productivity is gradually being overcome. This conclusion is confirmed by the change in the position on this issue of the authors of the widely distributed textbook "Economics" K.R. McConnell and S.R. Bru. In the 11th edition of this textbook, published in Russia in 1992, the authors, commenting on E. Denison's calculations on the factors of economic growth in the United States in 1929-1982, directly wrote "that the increase in labor productivity was the most important factor that ensured growth of real product and income. In the 16th edition of the same textbook, published in Russia in 2007, the authors, commenting on the same calculations by E. Denison, no longer write about labor productivity as a factor in economic growth. Their updated comment looks like this: “Real GDP can be represented as the product of labor costs (hours of work) and labor productivity ... Labor productivity is determined by such factors as technical progress, capital-labor ratio (the amount of fixed capital available for labor activity), the quality of the labor force itself and efficiency in the distribution and combination of various resources, as well as their management. Thus, these authors have undergone a transformation of the position on the content of labor productivity from a factorial approach to a measuring one.
Nevertheless, the idea of labor productivity as an independent and most important factor in economic growth, having migrated from scientific literature to educational, and then to popular literature, has formed a false (incorrect) public consciousness about the truly important factors of economic growth. From everywhere, like a spell, one hears: labor productivity is the most important factor in economic growth, and it is still not noticed that the real factors of economic growth are new technologies, the capital-labor ratio of labor, the quality of the labor force and the effective management of the combination of these resources, which ultimately leads to an increase in labor productivity. In order to turn public consciousness towards the understanding that the growth of labor productivity is just the result of effective management of the real factors of production, this result must be measured in a differentiated way.
The measuring approach to determining labor productivity has been and remains the most common among both domestic and foreign economists. Particular attention was paid to the problem of measuring labor productivity in the domestic economic literature of the Soviet period. And although dozens of special monographs and an immense number of articles were devoted to it, the approach to solving the problem was essentially the same for different authors. All authors, in one way or another, proceeded from a simple definition of labor productivity as the amount of product (service) produced by an employee per unit of working time or per unit of labor. In short, the content of labor productivity was taken to be the output per unit of working time by one worker. Further, on the one hand, various variations of product forms were proposed - natural or conditionally - natural and cost (gross, marketable, sold, net, conditionally - net, standard - net); on the other hand, different categories of workers (workers, industrial and production personnel or all those employed in material production); and on the third side, labor inputs of different structure (living or total labor, i.e. living and past together).
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As a result of such variations, the number of indicators allegedly measuring labor productivity amounted to dozens, and their dynamics often had the opposite direction, so it was almost impossible to assess the real level and dynamics of labor productivity. But most importantly, it was not clear why certain indicators of labor productivity were calculated, because, as a rule, they were not linked to other indicators of economic activity and in this case had no practical value. It can be said with certainty that the Soviet economic school, reducing the content of labor productivity to "bare" production in one form or another, thereby closed for itself possible ways to solve the problem of measuring its level and dynamics, although the search for such ways did not stop until the collapse of the USSR .
In the late 80s - early 90s. 20th century In Russia, several translated works by Western economists have been published on the analysis of labor productivity, among which two monographs should be highlighted: (1) Sink D.S. Performance Management: Planning, Measurement and Evaluation, Control and Improvement (1989); (2) Grayson J.K.ml, O "Dell K. American Management at the Threshold of the 21st Century (1991). In these works, the problem of productivity is considered more broadly. First, Western economists, speaking of productivity, follow the traditions of marginalists - neoclassical and have in mind not only the productivity of labor, but also the productivity of other resources; secondly, productivity is beginning to be considered as a category that has its own properties or characteristics.
If we are not talking about resource productivity in general, but only about labor productivity, then a generalized view of Western economists about its content and measurement possibilities was given by V.M. Zubov in the monograph "How labor productivity is measured in the USA", published in 1990. Zubov V.M. draws attention to the fact that in the US there are two approaches to solving performance problems:
- labor productivity is one of a number of indicators that evaluate the activities of an enterprise and are of an auxiliary nature to the main indicator for the capitalist - profit;
- labor productivity is a general category that covers all aspects of the final activity of the enterprise.
A positive solution to such a problem runs into the absence of an objective theoretical basis, which D.S. Sink. In particular, he wrote: “The term and concept “performance” is extremely overused. This is because there has been no theoretically sound attempt to create a solid conceptual foundation for the study of performance. The amount of “half-truth” about performance is simply amazing, and sometimes this rhetoric is overwhelming It has become such a buzzword for both students and managers who seek to improve performance that almost all sciences and professions resort to it to advertise their own short-sighted "solutions". also creating a conceptual framework".
20 years after the publication of the monograph by D.S. Sinka, the problem of creating a "solid theoretically sound conceptual foundation" in economic research has become extremely important not only for the study of productivity; it has become universally important, and not only supporters of heterodox (heretical) currents of economic thought, but also representatives of the mainstream in economic theory are already directly writing about this.
In 2008, an interdisciplinary symposium was held at the Free University of Berlin, the organizers of which set the theme "Is there a mathematical theory of social objects?" As part of the symposium, a working group on financial market modeling met during the week, where original ideas were expressed that in the course of economic research it is necessary to unblock the interaction between micro - and macro levels. One of the results of the discussion was the text of the article "The financial crisis and the failures of modern economic science", co-authored by well-known European and American economists - A. Kirman, D. Kolander, G. Felmer and a number of other authoritative scientists. The authors of the article, in particular, write that: "Currently popular models (for example, dynamic general equilibrium models) not only have weak microfoundations, but also do not describe empirical data very well ... Rather, adequate microfoundations are needed, in which the interaction was considered would be at a certain level of complexity, and macro patterns (if they exist) would be derived from microeconomic models ... In order to develop models that would allow us to derive macro events from microeconomic patterns, economists must rethink the concept of microfoundations in macroeconomic models ". Therefore, starting a positive study of the content of the law of labor productivity, it is necessary first of all to determine the phenomena of micro- and macro-objects in the economy.
Technological progress associated with the applied use of scientific achievements has developed in hundreds of interrelated areas, and it is hardly justified to single out any one group of them as the main one. At the same time, it is obvious that the improvement of transport had the greatest impact on world development in the first half of the 20th century. It ensured the activation of ties between peoples, gave an impetus to domestic and international trade, deepened the international division of labor, and caused a real revolution in military affairs.
Development of land and sea transport. The first samples of cars were created in 1885-1886. German engineers K. Benz and G. Daimler, when new types of liquid fuel engines appeared. In 1895, the Irishman J. Dunlop invented pneumatic rubber tires, which significantly increased the comfort of cars. In 1898, 50 companies producing automobiles appeared in the USA, in 1908 there were already 241 of them. In 1906, a caterpillar tractor with an internal combustion engine was manufactured in the USA, which significantly increased the possibilities of cultivating the land. (Prior to this, agricultural vehicles were wheeled, with steam engines.) With the outbreak of the World War 1914-1918. armored tracked vehicles appeared - tanks, first used in hostilities in 1916. World War II 1939-1945. was already completely a "war of engines". At the enterprise of the American self-taught mechanic G. Ford, who became a major industrialist, in 1908 the Ford T was created - a car for mass consumption, the first in the world to be put into mass production. By the time the Second World War began, more than 6 million trucks and more than 30 million cars and buses were in operation in the developed countries of the world. The development in the 1930s contributed to the reduction in the cost of operating cars. the German concern "IG Farbindustry" technology for the production of high-quality synthetic rubber.
The development of the automotive industry demanded cheaper and stronger structural materials, more powerful and economical engines, and contributed to the construction of roads and bridges. The car has become the most striking and visual symbol of technological progress of the 20th century.
The development of road transport in many countries created competition for the railways, which played a huge role in the 19th century, at the initial stage of the development of the industry. The general vector for the development of railway transport was to increase the power of locomotives, the speed of movement and the carrying capacity of trains. Back in the 1880s. the first electric city trams, the subway appeared, which provided opportunities for the growth of cities. At the beginning of the 20th century, the process of electrification of railways unfolded. The first diesel locomotive (diesel locomotive) appeared in Germany in 1912.
For the development of international trade, an increase in the carrying capacity, speed of ships and a decrease in the cost of shipping were of great importance. With the beginning of the century, ships with steam turbines and internal combustion engines (motor ships or diesel-electric ships) began to be built, capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean in less than two weeks. The navies were replenished with ironclads with reinforced armor and heavy weapons. The first such ship, the Dreadnought, was built in Great Britain in 1906. The battleships of the Second World War turned into real floating fortresses with a displacement of 40–50,000 tons, a length of up to 300 meters, and a crew of 1.5–2 thousand people. . Thanks to the development of electric motors, the construction of submarines became possible, which played a large role in the first and second world wars.
Aviation and rocket technology. Aviation became a new means of transport of the 20th century, which very quickly acquired military significance. Its development, which originally had recreational and sporting significance, became possible after 1903, when the Wright brothers in the USA used a light and compact gasoline engine in an aircraft. Already in 1914, the Russian designer I.I. Sikorsky (later emigrated to the United States) created a four-engine heavy bomber "Ilya Muromets", which had no equal. He carried up to half a ton of bombs, was armed with eight machine guns, and could fly at an altitude of up to four kilometers.
The First World War gave a great impetus to the improvement of aviation. At its beginning, the planes of most countries - "whatnots" made of matter and wood - were used only for reconnaissance. By the end of the war, fighters armed with machine guns could reach speeds of over 200 km / h, heavy bombers had a payload capacity of up to 4 tons. In the 1920s G. Junkers in Germany carried out the transition to all-metal aircraft structures, which made it possible to increase the speed and range of flights. In 1919, the world's first postal passenger airline New York - Washington was opened, in 1920 - between Berlin and Weimar. In 1927, the American pilot C. Lindbergh made the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1937, Soviet pilots V.P. Chkalov and M.M. Gromov flew over the North Pole from the USSR to the USA. By the end of the 1930s. air communication lines connected most regions of the globe. Airplanes proved to be a faster and more reliable means of transport than airships, the lighter-than-air aircraft that were predicted to have a great future at the beginning of the century.
Based on the theoretical developments of K.E. Tsiolkovsky, F.A. Zander (USSR), R. Goddard (USA), G. Oberth (Germany) in the 1920s-1930s. liquid-propellant (rocket) and air-jet engines were designed and tested. The Jet Propulsion Study Group (GIRD), established in the USSR in 1932, launched the first rocket with a liquid-propellant rocket engine in 1933, and tested a rocket with an air-jet engine in 1939. In Germany, in 1939, the world's first Xe-178 jet aircraft was tested. The designer Wernher von Braun created the V-2 rocket with a range of several hundred kilometers, but an ineffective guidance system, since 1944 it was used for the bombing of London. On the eve of the defeat of Germany, a Me-262 jet fighter appeared in the sky over Berlin, and work on the V-3 transatlantic rocket was close to completion. In the USSR, the first jet aircraft was tested in 1940. In England, a similar test took place in 1941, and prototypes appeared in 1944 ("Meteor"), in the USA - in 1945 (F-80, Lockheed ").
New construction materials and energy. The improvement of transport was largely due to new structural materials. Back in 1878, the Englishman S. J. Thomas invented a new, so-called Thomas method of melting iron into steel, which made it possible to obtain metal of increased strength, without impurities of sulfur and phosphorus. In 1898-1900s. even more advanced electric arc melting furnaces appeared. Improvement in the quality of steel and the invention of reinforced concrete made it possible to build structures of unprecedented dimensions. The height of the Woolworth skyscraper, built in New York in 1913, was 242 meters, the length of the central span of the Quebec Bridge, built in Canada in 1917, reached 550 meters.
The development of the automotive industry, engine building, the electrical industry, and especially aviation, then rocket technology, required lighter, stronger, refractory structural materials than steel. In the 1920s-1930s. the demand for aluminium. In the late 1930s With the development of chemistry, chemical physics, which studies chemical processes using the achievements of quantum mechanics, crystallography, it became possible to obtain substances with predetermined properties that have great strength and durability. In 1938, artificial fibers such as nylon, perlon, nylon, and synthetic resins were obtained almost simultaneously in Germany and the USA, which made it possible to obtain qualitatively new structural materials. True, their mass production acquired special significance only after the Second World War.
The development of industry and transport has increased energy consumption and required the improvement of energy. The main source of energy in the first half of the century was coal, back in the 30s. In the 20th century, 80% of electricity was generated at thermal power plants (CHP) that burned coal. True, in 20 years - from 1918 to 1938, the improvement of technology made it possible to halve the cost of coal for the generation of one kilowatt-hour of electricity. Since the 1930s the use of cheaper hydropower began to expand. The world's largest hydroelectric power station (HPP) Boulderdam with a dam 226 meters high was built in 1936 in the USA on the Colorado River. With the advent of internal combustion engines, a demand arose for crude oil, which, with the invention of the cracking process, they learned to decompose into fractions - heavy (fuel oil) and light (gasoline). In many countries, especially in Germany, which did not have its own oil reserves, technologies for producing liquid synthetic fuels were being developed. Natural gas has become an important source of energy.
Transition to industrial production. The need for the production of increasing volumes of technologically more and more complex products required not only the renewal of the fleet of machine tools, new equipment, but also a more perfect organization of production. The advantages of intra-factory division of labor were known as early as the 18th century. A. Smith wrote about them in his famous work "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776). In particular, he compared the work of an artisan who made needles by hand and a manufactory worker, each of whom performed only separate operations using machine tools, noting that in the second case, labor productivity increased by more than two hundred times.
American engineer F.W. Taylor (1856-1915) proposed to divide the process of manufacturing complex products into a number of relatively simple operations performed in a clear sequence with the timing required for each operation. For the first time, the Taylor system was tested in practice by the auto manufacturer G. Ford in 1908 in the production of the Ford-T model he invented. In contrast to the 18 operations for the production of needles, 7882 operations were required to assemble a car. As G. Ford wrote in his memoirs, the analysis showed that 949 operations required physically strong men, 3338 could be performed by people of average health, 670 could be performed by legless disabled people, 2637 by one-legged, two by armless, 715 by one-armed, 10 - blind. It was not about charity with the involvement of disabled people, but a clear distribution of functions. This made it possible, first of all, to significantly simplify and reduce the cost of training workers. Many of them now required no more skill than needed to turn a lever or turn a nut. It became possible to assemble machines on a continuously moving conveyor belt, which greatly accelerated the production process.
It is clear that the creation of conveyor production made sense and could be profitable only with large volumes of output. The symbol of the first half of the 20th century was the giants of industry, huge industrial complexes employing tens of thousands of people. Their creation required the centralization of production and the concentration of capital, which were ensured through mergers of industrial companies, the combination of their capital with bank capital, and the formation of joint-stock companies. The very first established large corporations that mastered conveyor production ruined competitors who were delayed in the phase of small-scale production, monopolized the domestic markets of their countries, and launched an attack on foreign competitors. Thus, five major corporations dominated the electrical industry on the world market by 1914: three American corporations ("General Electric", "Westinghouse", "Western Electric") and two German ones ("AEG" and "Simmens").
The transition to large-scale industrial production, made possible by technological progress, contributed to its further acceleration. The reasons for the rapid acceleration of technological development in the 20th century are associated not only with the successes of science, but also with the general state of the system of international relations, the world economy, and social relations. In the conditions of ever-increasing competition in world markets, the largest corporations were looking for methods to weaken competitors and invade their spheres of economic influence. In the last century, methods of increasing competitiveness were associated with attempts to increase the length of the working day, the intensity of labor, without increasing, or even reducing the wages of employees. This made it possible, by releasing large volumes of products at a lower cost per unit of goods, to push out competitors, sell products cheaper and make more profit. However, the use of these methods was, on the one hand, limited by the physical capabilities of employees, on the other hand, they met with increasing resistance, which violated social stability in society. With the development of the trade union movement, the emergence of political parties that defend the interests of wage laborers, under their pressure, in most industrialized countries, laws were passed that limited the length of the working day and established minimum wage rates. When labor disputes arose, the state, which was interested in social peace, increasingly shied away from supporting entrepreneurs, gravitating toward a neutral, compromise position.
Under these conditions, the main method of increasing competitiveness was, first of all, the use of more advanced productive machines and equipment, which also made it possible to increase the volume of output at the same or even lower cost of human labor. So, only for the period 1900-1913. labor productivity in industry increased by 40%. This provided more than half of the growth in world industrial output (it amounted to 70%). Technical thought turned to the problem of reducing the cost of resources and energy per unit of output, i.e. reducing its cost, switching to the so-called energy-saving and resource-saving technologies. So, in 1910 in the USA the average cost of a car was 20 average monthly salaries of a skilled worker, in 1922 - only three. Finally, the most important method of conquering markets has become the ability to update the range of products before others, to throw products on the market that have qualitatively new consumer properties.
The most important factor in ensuring competitiveness, therefore, has become technological progress. Those corporations that benefited the most from it naturally secured advantages over their competitors.
Questions and tasks
- 1. Describe the main directions of scientific and technological progress by the beginning of the 20th century.
- 2. Give the most significant examples of the impact of scientific discoveries on changing the face of the world. Which of them would you single out especially in terms of significance in the scientific and technological progress of mankind? Explain your opinion.
- 3. Explain how scientific discoveries in one area of knowledge influenced advances in other areas. What impact did they have on the development of industry, agriculture, the state of the financial system?
- 4. What place did the achievements of Russian scientists occupy in world science? Give examples from the textbook and other sources of information.
- 5. Reveal the origins of increasing productivity in industry at the beginning of the 20th century.
- 6. Identify and reflect on the diagram of the connection and the logical sequence of factors that show how the transition to conveyor production contributed to the formation of monopolies, the merging of industrial and banking capital.
"Food and light industry" - Seiner. The second group of industries. Here are the boots and ready. Professions in light and food industry. Fish industry. Problems of food and light industry. In the 19th century, Russian fullers walked around the Chuvash villages and felted on the spot on request. The main centers of the textile industry. Specializing in the production of hosiery and knitwear, founded in 1962.
"World Industry" - The listed groups of industries have different growth rates. However, ferrous metallurgy in developing countries is rapidly gaining momentum. One of the main branches of mechanical engineering in the world is the automotive industry. What is the sectoral structure of industry in developed (EDC) and developing countries (DC)? Non-ferrous metallurgy.
"Industrial geography" - Fuel and energy industry. 1) coal mining 2) iron ore 3) metallurgical 4) production of railway rolling stock 5) shipbuilding 6) textile. governs the world!!! Old. Distribution of world industrial production by leading countries (2000). Industry groups.
"Metallurgical industry" - Heavy metals. Why has the role of Canada, Australia and South Africa increased in the mining industry? Name the "great mining powers". Transportable. 1. North America: 30% full range. Engineering. To the consumer. Metallurgical industry, mechanical engineering, chemical industry of the world. WORLD COPPER INDUSTRY AT THE LATE 1990s
"Fuel Industry" - The history of the oil industry in illustrations. Ways of development of the fuel industry. fuel industry of the world. Types of fuel industry. Oil industry. Oil. Gas industry. Coal. Oil transportation. Mineral resources of the world. Extraction and transportation of coal. There are two ways of development: the coal stage (XIX - early XX); oil and gas stage (XX - XXI).
"Forest industry" - Construction complex - paints, varnish, fiberboard, chipboard. To the consumer - personal hygiene products, pharmaceuticals and more. Chemical-forest industry. placement factors. composition of the timber industry. Timber industry: agro-industrial complex - packaging, containers, wrappers, boxes. Problems. Stages - logging, sawmilling, woodworking, wood chemistry, pulp and paper industry.
